CBSE Class 11

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for 11 Political Science Chapter 7 Federalism Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation.

Federalism NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 7

Federalism Questions and Answers Class 11 Political Science Chapter 7

Question 1.
From the list of following events which ones would you identify with the functioning of federalism? Why?
Answer:
(a) The centre on Tuesday announced sixth schedule status to GNLF-led Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council, which would ensure greater autonomy to the governing body in the Hill district of West Bengal. A tripartite Memorandum of settlement was signed in New Delhi between the centre, West Bengal Government and Subhas Ghising-led Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF) after two days of hectic deliberations.

(b) Government for action plan for rain-hit states: Centre has asked the rain-ravaged states to submit detailed plans for reconstruction to enable it to respond to their demands for extra relief expeditiously.

(c) New Commissioner for Delhi: The Capital is getting a new Municipal Commissioner. Confirming this, present MCD Commissioner Rakesh Mehta said he has received his transfer orders and that he is likely to be replaced by IAS Officer Ashok Kumar, who is serving as the Chief Secretary in Arunachal Pradesh. Mehta, a 1975 batch IAS Officer, has been heading the MCD for about three-and-a-half years.

(d) CU Status for Manipur University : Rajya Sabha on Wednesday passed a Bill to convert the Manipur University into a Central University with the Human Resource Development Minister promising such institu¬tions in the North Eastern States of Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura and Sikkim as well.

(e) Funds released: The centre has released Rs. 5.53 lakh to Arunachal Pradesh under its rural water supply scheme. The first instalment was of Rs. 466.81 Lakh.

(f) We”ll teach the Biharis how to live in Mumbai: Around 100 Shiv Sainiks stromed JJ. Hospital, disrupted daily operations, raised slogans and threatened to take matters into their own hands if no action was taken againt non-Maharashtrian students.

(g) Demand for dismissal of Government: The Congress Legislature Party (CLP) in a respresentation submitted to State Governor recently, has demanded dismisal of the ruling Democratic Alliance of Nagaland (DAN) government for its alleged financial mismanagement-and embezzlement of publkmoney.

(h) NDA govemment asks naxalites to surrender arms: Amid a walkout by opposition RJD and its allies Congress and CPI

(M) The Bihar government today appealed to the naxalities to shun the path of violence and reaffirmed its pledge to root out unemployment to usher in a new era of development in Bihar.
Answer:
We consider ‘a’ of the above situations of the functioning of Federalism as it involves the decentralisation of powers of the state with autonomous council which represent a particular area with homogenous cultures and interests. Second Para which shows the functioning of Federation, is ’b’ is which centre has instructed the rain hit states to submit the details of the damage so that necessary story assistance can be provided. This is responsibilty of centre, Para ‘E’ is also example of functioning of federalism as centre has released the funds for water supply.

Question 2.
Think which of the following statements would be correct. State why?
a. Federalism enhances the possibility of people from different regions to interact without the fear of one’s culture being imposed upon them by other.
b. Federal system will hinder easier economic transaction between two different regions that have distinct types of resources.
c. Federal system will ensure the powers of those at the centre will remain limited.
Answer:
The correct position of the above is in ‘c’ paragraph which says that the power of centre will be limited because its powers will be decentalised which is essential characteristic of a federal system.

Question 3.
Based on the just few articles of Belgian constitution,given below- explain how federalism is visualised In that country. Try and write a similar Article for the Constitution of India.
Art. 1. Belgium is a federal state made up of communities and regions.
Art. 2. Belgium is made up of three communities. The French community: The Flemish community and the German Community.
Art.3. Belgium is made up of three regions. The Waloon regions, the Flemish regions and the Brussels regions.
Art.4., Belgium has four linguistic regions. The French speaking region, the Dutch speaking begins, the bilingual regions of Brussels capital and the German speaking region. Each community (country borough) of the kingdom is part of three linguistic regions…….
Art. 5. The Waloon region is made up of the following provinces. The Waloon Brobent, Hainault. Leige, Luxemburg and Namue. The Flemish region is made up of the following provinces. Antweep, The Flemish Brahant. West Flanders. East Flanders and Limburg.
Answer:
From the above description it is clear that the Belgium society is a plural society with different communities and languages living in different communces, regions and provinces. Due to diversity in society Belgium certainly needs Federal structure. It should be the federation of different provinces having different linguistic regions and provinces.

Indian society is also plural society with different religions, geographical identities, languages and dilects. Today it is federation of 28 states which have been created largely on the basis of languages. India is federal but have dominant unitary featurs which have been introduced in the Constitution due to the historical lessons and the possible threats to National integration.

There is constitutional provision of divisions of power between the centre and states. States have been made strong in their own areas. Indian federal is based on the co-operation and co-ordination of both in centre and states.

Question 4.
Imagine that you will to rewrite the provisions regarding federalism. Write an essay of not more than 300 words making your suggestions about:
a. division of powers among the centre and states.
b. distribution of financial powers.
c. methods of resolving inter-state disputes and
d. appointment of Governors.
Answer:
In a plural and diverse society, the federal polity is necessary condition for the democratic set up and fulfillment of local and regional aspirations of the people. The federal structure must be designed according to the con-stitutional scheme. The first requirement constitutional scheme will be the distribution of powers which must be On the true principles of federalism.

It means the centre must be creation of the states and centre must be given limited powers of national and international importance. The residual powers should also be with the states. There should be co-operation and cordination between the centre and states for the development and national integration of the country.

The states must be administravely and financially autonomous. The states must be financially self dependence. Their dependence on the centre must be minimum. The local resources of the states should be mobilised to the maximum limit to strengthen their economy.

There should not be any kind of regional disparity. The distribution of national resources among the states should be on national formula. Their should be cooperation among the states also in improving the economy of each other.

The inter-state disputes are bound to emerge in federal set up which should be settled either mutual co-operation and understanding or by Inter-state council or by the awards of committees and commissions.

Governors are the executive head of the state who are appointed by the President on the advice of council of ministers. In fact in practice this appointment has became political. This post is supposed to be most respected post but today this has become most defamed post because of controversial decisions and behaviour of the Governors.

Therefore it is very much essential that there should be no politicisation of the post of Governor and the appointment of high ability and integrity must be ensured on this post.

Question 5.
Which of the following should be the basis for formation of States? Why?
a. Common Language
b. Common Economic Interests; c. Common religion
d. Administrative convenience
Answer:
Although in India common Language is the basis of State formation as per state Reorganisation Act 1956 but administrative convience should be the first creative because common religion interests and common ecnomic interest will lead to parochialism which may pose danger for the national integrity.

Question 6.
Majority of people from the States of north India Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar speak Hindi. If all these states are combined to form one State. Would it be in tune with the idea of federalism? Give arguments.
Answer:
If all the states which speak Hindi namely Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are combined to form one State, it will be a homogenous unit and can be made one single state but such a big area r will not be condusive for administrative convinience. Already three states are formed more on the basis of administrative convinience rather than any other factor.

Question 7.
List four features of the Indian constitution that give greater power to the Central Government than the State Government.
Answer:
Followings are four features of the Indian Constitution that give greater power to the Central Government:

• Distribution of powers in favour of centre.
• Emergency powers for the present Art 352
• President rule in State Art 356.
• All India Government Service.

Question 8.
Why are many States unhappy about the role of Governor?
Answer:
Many states are unhappy with the Governor perhaps rightly because they discharge their duties in partial manners. Most of the time they misuse their discretionary powers and create controvery. Most of the times the President Rule has been imposed as unjustified basis.

The Governor is supposed to be the representative or agent of the centre but he has become the agent of the ruling party at the centre. The Governors are appointed without consulting the Chief Ministers which lead to controversies between the chief ministers and Governors. Bihar, Jharkhand and Goa are the recent examples of the controversial positions of the Governors.

Question 9.
President’s rule can be imposed in a State if the Government is not being run according to the provisions of the Constitution. State whether any of the following condition are a fit case for imposition of President’s rule in the State. Give reasons.
(a) Two members of the state legislative assembly belonging to the main opposition party have been killed by criminals and the opposition is demanding dismissal of the state Government.
(b) Kidnapping of young children for ransom is on rise. The number of crimes against women are increasing.
(c) No political party has secured majority in the recent elections
of the State legislative Assembly. It is feared that some MLAs from other parties may be lured to support a political party in return for money.
(d) Different political parties are ruling in the state and at the centre and they are bitter opponents of each other.
(e) More than 2000 people have been killed in the communal riots.
(f) In the water dispute between the two States, one State government
refused to follow the decision of the Supreme Court.
Answer:
‘C’ case is the fit case of imposition of President rule as has happened in Bihar recently. In this situation chances of defection and purchase and sale of legislature increases.

Question 10.
What are the demands raised by States in their querst for greater autonomy?
Answer:
Following are the demands of the states in the name of autonomy:
1. Division of powers should be in favour of States.
2. States should have independent sources of revence and greater control over the resources.
3. More administrative powers of the states and less interference of the centre in states.
4. Autonomy in cultural and linguistic matters.
5. More financial autonomy.

Question 11.
Should some states be governed by special provisions? Does this create resentment among other States? Does this help in forging greater unity among the regions of the country?
Answer:
Although, as per the priniciple of Federal System, there should be equality in the treatment of all the states, whether a state is big or small But in India there is not only unequal representation but there is unequal treatment with the states due to this reason or that reason. Constitution has some special provisions for some states given their peculiar, social and historical circumstances.

Most of the special provisions pertain to the northeastern states (Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram etc. are due to indigenous tribal population with a district history and culture. (Art. 371) Similarly Jammu & Kashmir has a special status which was given under Art 370 under difficult historical circumstances.

Such type of special and preferencial treatment certainly do not generate co-operation and unity, because other states also raise the demand for special rights and the demands become competitive. In such situation development national integration became the casualty.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for 11 Political Science Chapter 6 Judiciary Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation.

Judiciary NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 6

Judiciary Questions and Answers Class 11 Political Science Chapter 6

Question 1.
What are the different ways in which the independence of the Judiciary is ensured? Choose the odd ones out.
I. Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is consulted in the appointment of other Judges of Supreme Court.
II. The judges an generally not removed before the age of retirement.
III. Judge of a High Court cannot be transferred in another High Court.
IV. Parliament has no say in the appointment of Judges.
From the above the odd One out is answer II which says that Judges are generally not removed before the age of retirement.
Answer:
II. The judges an generally not removed before the age of retirement.

Question 2.
Does independence of the Judiciary mean that the Judiciary is not accountable to any one? Write your answer is not more than 100 words.
Answer:
Independence of Judiciary does not mean that it is unaccountable. In fact like other organs of the Government it is also the product of the Constitution hence, it is also required as per the scheme of the Constitution and objective of the Constitution. Independence of Judiciary means that it will be allowed to work without undue interference of executive and legislature.

Judiciary will ensure the working of democracy and it is for this objective Judiciary is accountable. It is fact the conduct of judges cannot be discouraged in legislative but the judges can be impeached by the Parliament for their working in an unbecoming manner. So we cannot say that Judiciary is not accountable to any one.

Question 3.
What are the different provisions in the Constitution in order to maintain the independence of Judiciary.
Answer:
Followings are the main provisions in the constitution to maintain the independence of Judicary.
1. The Legislature is not involved in the matter of appointment of Judges.
2. Definite qualifications and experiences have been set for the appointment of Judges.
3. Judges have long and fixed tenure and the process of their removal is very lenthy and difficult.
4. The Judiciary is not financially dependent on the executive of Legsilature.
5. The actions and decisons of the Judges are immunce from personal criticism.
6. Judiciary has the power to punish those who are found committing contempt of courts.
7. The decisions of the courts are binding.

Question 4.
Read the news report below and identify the following aspects.
1. What is the case about?
2. Who has been the beneficiary in the case?
3. Who is the petitioner in the case?
4. Visalise what would have been the different arguments put forward by the company.
5. What arguments would the farmers have put forward?
Supreme Court orders REL to pay Rs. 300 crore to Dahanu farmers. Mumbai:- The Supreme Court has ordered Reliance Energy to pay Rs.300 crore to farmers who grow the chikoo fruit in the Dahanu area outside Muftibai.The order comes after the chikoo growers petitioned the court against the pollution caused by Reliance’s thermal power plant Dahanu, which is 150 km from Mumbai, was a self sustaining agricultural and horticultural economy known for its fisheries and forests just over a decade ago, but was devastated in 1989 when a thermal power plant came into operation in the region. The next year, this fertile belt saw its first crop failure.

Now 70 percent of the crop of what was once the fruit -a bowl of Maharashtra is gone. The fisheries have shut and the forest corner has thinned. Farmers and environmentalists say that fly ash from the power plant entered ground water and polluted the entire eco system. The Dahanu Taluka Environment Protection Authority ordered the thermal station to set up a pollution control unit to reduce sulphur emissions and in spite of Supreme Court order backing the order the pollution control plant was not set up even by 2002.

In 2003 Reliance acquired the thermal station and resubmitted a schedule for installation process in 2004. As the pollution control plant is still not set up, the Dahanu Taluka Environmental protection Authority asked Reliance for a bank guarantee of Rs. 300 crores.
Answer:
1. The case is about the compensation to Chikoo growing farmers of Dahanu areas in leiu of lost suffered by them due to loss of crop of chikoo fruits due to harmful emission of thermal power plant set up in that area.

2. The chikoo growing farmers of Dahanu area were the beneficiery of the decision of Supreme Court in this case.

3. Chikoo growing farmers of the Dahanupur area are the petitioner in this case.

4. The Reliance Company would have arguing in the court for setting up a pollution control plant to check the harmful emission.

5. The farmers would have argued that the economy as well as eco-system is shattered due to harmful emission of the thermal power plant.

Question 5.
Read the following news report and,
1. Identify the Governments at different levels
2. Identify the’ role of Supreme Court
3. What elements of the working of Judiciary and executive can you identify in it?
4. Identify the policy issues, matters related to Legislation, implementation and interpretalion of the law involved in this. case.
Centre; Delhi join hands on CNG issue New Delhi Sept. 22. The Centre and Delhi Government today agreed to jointly approach the Supreme Court this coming week for phasing out of all non-CNG commerical vehicles us the capital. They also decided to seek a dual fuel policy for the city instead of putting the entire transportation system on the single-fuel mode which was full of dangers and would result in disaster.”

It was also decided to discourage the use of CNG by private vehicle owners in the capital. Body governments would press for allowing the use of 0.05 percent low sulphur diesel for running of buses in the Capital. In addition, it would be pleaded before the court that all commerical vehicles which fulfil the Euro-II standards, should be allowed to ply in the city! Through both the Centre and State would file separate affidavits, these would contain common points. The centre would also go out and support the Delhi Government’s stand on the issues concerning CNG.
Answer:
1. The Governments which are involved in this case are central Government and Delhi Government.

2. The Supreme Court wilfkave^jole in deciding the case on the bases of norms of pollution control in Delhi due to Transportation system.

3. Executive will decide the policy on hire issue and judiciary will see and judge the extent of violation of norms of anti-potiutioB policy.

4. The policy issue is use of CNG and to allow the plying of various categories of the vehicles in Delhi. Government will have to present its policy and related law on this issue. In the matter of interpretation of policy and law of the Government, anti pollution security will be at the stake which is to be kept in the mind by the court while deciding on the affidavits of policy of central and Delhi Government on this issue.

Question 6.
Give an imaginary situation and state the role of Chief Justice. Also mention the different factors like experience, age, political learning and a possible difference of opinion between Government and Chief Justice.
Answer:
The judges are appointed by the President of India (which means state) to court and different High Courts with the consultation of Chief Justice of India. Although definite qualifications and experience are given in the constitution for tHe appointment of judges, yet while selecting a person to the appointed a judge some other conditions can also influence the process and decisions of the Government. Chief Justice is consulted but his opinions is not final. The philosophy and working of judges also matters.

Question 7.
The following is a statement about Ecuador. What similarities do you find between this example and the judicial system of India? “It would be helpful if a body of common law, or judicial precedent,existed that could clarify a journalist’s rights. Unfortunately Ecuador’s court do not work that way. Judges are not forced to respect the rulings of Higher Courts in previous cases unlike the US an appellate judge in Ecuador (or elsewhere in South America, for that matter) need not provide a written decision explaining the Legal basis of a ruling. A judge many rule one way today and the opposite way in a similar case, tomorrow, without explaining why”
Answer:
In Indian judicial system the previous decisions and precedents on a particular issue have a forceful binding on the decision of the judges. This is dissimilarly with the example given here because in Ecuador’s court the judges are not forced to respect the ruling of Higher Courts in previous court. He does not need written explanation of the basis of his decisions. The similarly is that In India also the judge can change their decision in new situations.

Question 8.
Read the following statements : Match then with the different Jurisdiction the Supreme Court can exercise-Original, Appellate and Advisory.

1. The Government wanted to know, if it can pass a law about the citizenship status of residents of Pakistan-occupied areas of Jammu and Kashmir.
Answer:
Advisory Jurisdiction.

2. Inorder to resolve the dispute about river Cauvery the Government of Tamil Nadu wants to approach the court
Answer:
Original jurisdiction

3. Court rejected the appeal by people against the eviction from the dam site.
Answer:
Appellate jurisdiction.

Question 9.
In what way can public interest litigation help the poor?
Answer:
PIL (Public Interest Litigation) is a revolitionary development in the dispensation of justice. It means that the case of such person who are unable to raise themselves can be raised by from other person or some other institution Through. PIL the judiciary has shown readiness to take into consideration rights of those poor section of the society who cannot easily approach the courts.

For this purpose judiciary has allowed Public spritual citizens and social organisations to file the petition’s on their behalf. This has helped the poor in a great way. Justice P.N. Bhagawti played pioneer role in Bandhua Mukti Morcha V/s Union of India are 1984. This concept has helped in the liberation of many Bandhua Majdoors.

Question 10.
Do you think that judicial activism can lead to a conflict between the judiciary and the executive? Why?
Answer:
Indian Judiciary is given the power of judicial review which empowerd judiciary to test the constitutional validity of the orders issued by the executive and the laws passed by the Legislature. In India judicial review is based on the principle of procedure established by Law which does not allow Judiciary to comment on policy matters and justness or unjustness of any order or Law.

It can comment only on the procedural aspect. It has to see that a law or order is as per provisions (meaning of the written word) of the Constitution. But in India judiciary is going beyond this allowed jurisdiction that is why it is regarded as judicial activision which is not being accepted or appreciated by the executive or legislatures. However people at large are appreciating this kind of judicial activism became Judiciary is exposing executive and checking their arbitrariness.

It is became of this there is certainly conflict between the judiciary and executive. Large number of policy matters of the executives have been struck down by the executive and many corrept policies and scandals of the bureucrats and politicians have been exposed by the judiciary.

Question 11.
How is Judicial activism related to protection of Fundamental Rights?Has it helped in expanding the scope of Fundamental Rights?
Answer:
By way of exercising the power of Judicial Review, judiciary has certainly helped in protecting the Fundamental Rights of the citizens in more effective way. Judiciary in India is working as effectively as the Supreme Court of USA. However like USA, due process of Law does not prevail in India.

Indian Judiciary in deciding on policies and programmes in different areas. It is protecting the Fundamental Rights of laboureres, farmers prisioners, women, minorities and weaker sections of the society. Judicial activism, although it may not be liked by the executive, but it has helped in making Indian successful and meaningful for the citizens of India. Judiciary is deciding the norms on different issues like wages and working conditions of the labourers, pollution, living conditions of the prisioners in jails etc. Judicial activism is certainly helpful in realisation of Fundamental Rights.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for 11 Political Science Chapter 5 Legislature Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation.

Legislature NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 5

Legislature Questions and Answers Class 11 Political Science Chapter 5

Question 1.
Alok thinks that a country needs an efficient government that look after the welfare of the people. So, if we simply elected our Prime-minister and Ministers and left to them the task of government, we will not need a legislature. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer:
The Government without Legislature is inconceivable in modern welfare state. Even in ancient monarchies, there used to be some advisory body on whose enlighted consent the morarch used to be dependent. From this small advisory body evolved today is big sized representive Parliament which is very much necessary to give popular and representative government.

Democracy is a Government of discussion, debate and dialogue which is held at the forum of the Parliament which becomes the base of the policies and decisions of the government. Direct election of Prime-minister and minister will be useless because they will also need a platform of discussion and debate.

In USA and other Presidential system of Government the Presidents are almost directly elected by the people even then there is very powerful legislature (Congress) to guide, advise and control the executive. In’modern complex state Parliament is very necessary to represent the people to protect the interest of the people and to have legislative and financial control. The executive, only elected Prime-Minister or minister cannot represent the entire population.

It is the Parliament which are true repositary of the faith of the people and which is soul of the people. Therefore no Government can work without Parliament in today’s modern state.

Question 2.
A class was debating the merits of a bicameral system. The followings points were made during the discussion. Read the arguments and say if you agree or disagree with each of them? Give reasons.

(a) Xena said that bicameral legislature does not serve any purpose.
Answer:
We disagree with Neha that bicameral legislature does not serve any purpose. The second chamber may be weak is some areas in different countries but it certainly serve many purpose which are of under:
1. It checks the arbitrariness of the lower house.
2. it provides the opportunity to review the bills which are passed in haste in Lower house.
3. It gives opportunity to make Public opinion on the bills
4. Second chamber is necessary in Federal System
5. It gives opportunity to represent the minorities.

(b) Shama argued that experts should be nominated in the second chamber.
Answer:
The argument of Shama has same weight. Infact in most of the countries the upper house is known as the representative of experienced and aged persons who give their mature opinions on the bills. In USA Senate is very powerful house and represent the seasonal, experienced and popular leaders. In Britain House of Lord is representative of special classes like Pears and military officers and aristocrates. In India 12 members, who have distinguished themselves in different areas are nominated by the President to Rajya Sabha.

(c) Tridib said that if a country is not a federation, than there is no need to house a second chamber.
Answer:
He is also right because bicameral legislature is needed in Federal system. However in unitary system also bicameral legislature can be useful in may ways.

Question 3.
Why can the Lok Sabha control the executive more effectively than the Rajya Sabha can?
Answer:
Lok Sabha has greater control on Executive in comparison to the Rajya Sabha. There are some reasons for it which are as under :
1. No Confidence motion can be moved only in Lok Sabha and not in Rajya Sabha.
2. Trial of strength of the government (Executive) is tested only in Lok Sabha and not in Rajya Sabha.
3. No money bill can be introduced in Rajya Sabha and it can delay money bill only for 14 days..
5. In Joint session, the writ of Lok Sabha prevails because of its higher numerical strength. .

Question 4.
Rather than effective control of the exective, the Lok Sabha is a platform for the expression of popular sentiments (a) id peoples expectations. Do you agree? Give reasons.
Answer:
Lok Sabha is a popular house and besides controlling the executive, the Lok Sabha is a platform for the expression of popular sentiments and people is expectations as it is repository of the faith and interests of the people as it is representative of common man. Lok Sabha has 543 members of representing 543 electoral constituencies of the country. The representative of the people protect and advocate and promote the interests of the people.

Question 5.
The following are some proposals for making the Parliament more effective. State if you agree or disagree with each of them and give your reasons. Explain what would be the effect if these suggestions were accepted.
(a) Parliament should work for longer period.
Answer:
I agree that to make Parliament more effective, the Parliament should work for longer period. For some years the working houses of the Parliament are wanted in boycotts and hooliganions. Total sittings of the Parliament are also reduced. There is urgent need to ensure the peaceful and un interrupted working of Indian Parliament as a part of reform. Since lot of expendture is involved in the per-minute working of the Parliament, therefore it should give maximum business in terms of work.

(b) Attendence should be made compulsory for members of Parliament.
Answer:
The compulsory attendence will make the members regular in attending and sitting in the house during the main business of the house. It will make the utility of the expenditure in conducting the Parliament.

(c) Speakers should be empowered to penalise members for interrupting the proceeding of the house.
Answer:
It is observed that the trend of frequent and unwanted interruptions of the working of the Parliament is on increase. ‘However it is right of hononurable members of Parliament to interrupt the proceeding but it should be on valid reason and through the process which is provided for. Speaker has lot of powers to maintain order in the house and check unwanted interruptions. He should his use powers effectively so that the business of the house is conducted are peaceful manners.

Question 6.
Arif wanted to know that if ministers propose most of the important bills and if the majority party often gets the government bills passed, what is the role of the Parliament in the law making process? What answer would you give him?
Answer:
In a Parliamentary system of Government most of the bills which are introduced in the Parliament are Government bills because they are introduced by the ministers which are generally passed because the Government has the’ majority of members Of Parliament. Infact it is practical situation.

Theoritically government (Executive) consists only the members of council of ministers headed by the Prime-Minister. Rest of the members of Parliament constitute the legislature which are separate from the executive and this legislature include the members of all the political parties ie; of ruling party and opposite parties. As such all the members should check and control the executive irrespective of Political party as representative of the Government.

Therefore there is significent role of Parliament in discussion, debate and law making process. Wrong decisions and policies of the Government are checked even by the members of Parliament of ruling party. The total support of the members of Parliament of ruling party can not be taken as granted. They have their own role as representative of the people.

Question 7.
Which of the following statements you agree with the most? Give your reasons.
1. Legislators must be free to join any party they want.
2. Anti-defection law has contributed to the domination of the party leaders over the legislators.
3. Defection is always for selfish purposes and therefore a legislator who wants to join another party must be disqualified from being a minister for the next two years.
Answer:
We agree most with the third statement that defection is always a selfish purpose because it is very rare that a person defected on prinicple basis. Therefore they must be punished at least by debarring them to become the minister or to give some assignment of-profit at least for two years so that others may learn the lesson.

Every effort to check the defection including 52 Amendment Act (Anti defection Law) could not check the problem of defection in Indian Politics. Therefore there must be some fear of punishment.

Question 8.
Dolly and Sudha are debating about the efficency and effectiveness of the ParlFaBrerrt-in recent times. Dolly believed that the decline of Indian Parliament is evident in the less time spent on debate and discussion and increase in the disturbances of the functioning of the house and walkout etc. Sudha contends that the fall of different governments on the floor of Lok Sabha is a proof of its vibrancy. What other arguments can you provide to support or oppose the positions of Dolly and Sudha?
Answer:
Dolly is right when she says that there is decline in the quality of debate and discussion in the Parliament. Lot of time is spent in useless activities in the Parliament. Frequent boycott and unruly scenes have become the order of the day which has lowered the prestige and authority of the Parliament.

The functioning of the house is disturbed frequently. Hot ex-changes, unparliamentary languages and sometimes chappals are also ex-changed on the floor of the house. In many state Assemblies violent scenes have been witnessed. All these are the evidence of the decline of the prestige and authority of Parliament .

Frequent fall of different Government as a result of passing No-confidence motion cannot be considered as a proof of vibrancy of the system. Infact it is the consequence of decline of the authority of the Parliament.

Question 9.
Arrange the different stages of passing of bill into a law in their correct sequence.
1. A resolution is passed to admit the bill for discussion;
2. The bill is referred to the President of India-write what happens next if she/he does not sign it.
3. The bill is referred to other house and is passed.
4. The bill is passed in the house in which it was proposed.
5. The bill is read clause by clause and each is voted upon.
6. The bill is referred to sub committee-the committeee makes some changes and sends it back to the house for discussion.
7. The concerned minister proposes the need for a bill.
8. Legislative department is ministry of law, drafts a bill
Answer:
Following is the correct sequence of the stages of law making process:
1. The concerned minister proposes the need for a bill.
2. Legislative department in ministry of law, drafts a bill
3. A resolution is passed to admit the bill for discussion.
4. The bill is referred to the sub-committee, the committee makes some changes and sends it back to the house for discussion.
5. The bill is read clause by clause and each is voted upon.
6. The bill is passed in the house in which it was proposed.
7. The bill is referred to other house and is passed.
8. The bill is referred to the President of India. If he/she signs it becomes law and if he/she does not sign he/she can send it back for reconsideration. After some reconsideration when the bill is referred to President. He/she has to sign it.

Question 10.
How has the system of Parliamentary Committee affected the overseeing and appraisal of legislation by the Parliament.
Answer:
The Parliament is over burdened due to the pressure of work due to mainly two reasons. Firstly due to the welfare nature of the state the demands are increasing so the number of bills is also on increase. Secondly the number of working hours of Parliament is on decrease due to, frequent disruptions in the working of Parliament.

It is because of these reasons the Parliament gets little time in examining the bills is details. For this purpose the constitution makers provided for the committee system. These committees play vital role not merely in law making but also in the day to day business of the house.

There are number of committees dealing with different aspects of the bill. Every committee goes into every details of the bills. They get relevant and required information from the minister. For that they can call even a minister or the secretary of the department. They go into technical, economic, financial and administrative aspect of the bill and then send their report to the Parliament which are again discussed in the house.

Since 1983 India has developed a system of standing committee system. There are more than 20 such committees which supervise the work of various department. Besides the standing committee there are joint parliamentary committees to discuss a particular bill and investigate the financial irregularities. Committee’s importance can be understood from the fact that the recommendation of the committees are generally accepted.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for 11 Political Science Chapter 4 Executive Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation.

Executive NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 4

Executive Questions and Answers Class 11 Political Science Chapter 4

Question 1.
A Parliamentary executive means:
a. Executive where there is a Parliament
b. Executive elected by the Parliament
c. Where the Parliament functions as the Executive
d. Executive that is dependent on support of the majority in the Parliament
Answer:
d. Executive that is dependent on support of the majority in the Parliament.

Question 2.
Read this dialogue. Which argument do you agree with? Why?
Answer:
1. Amit: Looking at the constitutional provisions, it seems that the President is only a rubber stamp.
2. Shama: The President appoints the Prime-Minister. So, he must have the powers to remove the Prime-minister as well.
3. Rajesh: We do not need a President After the election, the Parliament can meet and elect a leader to be the Prime-minister.

We agree with the dialogue of Shama that President appoints the Prime- . Minister so he must have the powers t6 remove the Prime-minister who is the leader of the majority party in the LofcSabha. Therefore he does not enjoy much discretion here except when no political party or group of political party gets the majority in the Lok Sabha so as to state claim to form the Government.

Formally President appoints the Prime-minister. In tune of the argument of Shama President has thevpower to remove the Prime Minister as was indicated in the case of President Giani Zail Singh and Rajiv Gandhi relationship.

Under Art. 78 of the Constitution, it is the duty of PM to give every information about the affairs of the State to President and if he does not discharges that duty, the President has power to ensure him. All the inter pretations of Art 78 by the constitutional experts suggested that President can remove the Prime-minister. But this never happened in Parliamentary Democracy in India. A Prime-minister goes only when he looses the majority support in the Lok Sabha.

Match the following:-
1. Works within the particular State in which recruited.- (a) Indian Foreign Service
2. Works in the central Government office located either at the national capital or elsewhere in the country (b) State Civil Services
3. Works in a particular state to which to centre.(c) All India Services alloted; can also be sent on deputation
4. Works in Indian missions abroad (d) Central services
Answer:
1. Works within the particular state in which recruited – (b) State Civil Services
2 Works in the central Government office located either at the national capital or elsewhere in the country – (d) Central services
3. Works in a particular state to which to centre – (c) All India Services alloted : can also be sent on deputation
4. Works in Indian missions abroad – (a) Indian Foreign Service

Question 4.
Identify the ministry which may have released the following news items. Would this be a ministry of the central government or State government? Why?
(a) An official release said that in 2004-05, the Tamil Nadu Text books Corporation would release new versions for standards VII, X and XI
Answer:
State Education ministry is concerned with* this because state government is concerned with the education of VII, X and XI in the state.

(b) A new railway loop line by passing the crowded Tfruvallur. Chennai section to help iron cron exporters. The new line, likely to be about 80 km long, will branch off at Puttum and then reach Athipattu near the Port.
Answer:
Central Government Ministry of Railway is concerned with it because it is a matter related with the railway department and export which is the issue of Central Government.

(c) The three member sub-divisional committee formed to verify suicide be farmers in Ramayampet mandal has found that the two farmers who committed suicide this month have had economic problems due to failure of crops.
Answer:
State agriculture ministry is concerned with this issue as it is related with the failure of crops and the problems of the farmers.

Question 5.
While appointing the Prime-minister, the President selects:
a. Leader of the largest party in the Lok Sabha.
b. Leader of the largest party in the alliance which secures a majority in the Lok Sabha.
c. The leader of the largest party in the Rajya Sabha.
d. The leader of the alliance or party that has the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha.
Answer:
a. The Leader of the largest party in the Lok Sabha.

Question 6.
Read this discussion and say which of these statements applies most to India.
Alok : Prime-minister is like a king, he decides everything in our country.
Shekhar: Prime-Minister is only ‘first among equals’, he. does not have special powers. All ministers and PM have similar powers.
Bobby: Prime-Minister has to consider the expectations of the Party. members and other supporters of the government But after all, the Prime minister has a greater say in policy making and in choosing the ministers.
Answer:
On going through the statements of Alok, Shekhar and Bobby, we find Bobby’s statement explains the Indian situation and the position of Indian Prime-minister. Indian Prime-minister has to keep many things in mind while taking any decision. No doubt that the parliamentary tradition gives many powers to him and he is certainly different to his ministers in many ways.

Question 7.
Why do you think is the advice of the Council of Ministers binding on the President? Give your answer in not more than 100 words.
Answer:
Art-74 of the Constitution speaks that there shall be Council of ministers with the Prime-minister at the head to aid and advice the President, who shall in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice.

Provided that the President may require the council of ministers to reconsider such advice and the President shall act in accordance with the advice tendered after such reconsideration.

44th Constitutional Amendment has also further established this situation that ultimately the President is bound by the advice of council of ministers. However he can send back first advice of the council of minister for reconsideration.

Question 8.
The Parliamentary system of executive vests many powers in the legislature for controlling the executive. Why, do you think is it so necessary to control the executive?
Answer:
This is the main characteristic and merit of the Parliamentary Government that it is a responsible and responsive Government. Structurally and functionally there is close relation between executive and legislature. The Prime-Minister and ministers are members of legislature and remain in the office as long as they enjoy the confidence and support of the/ legislature. The executive is constantly exposed to the control of the legislature who by number of Parliamentary methods exerts control on the executive. Main methods are :

• Discussions and debate in question hours and zero hours.
• Callattention motion.
• Adjourn motion
• No confidence motion etc.

Ministers are individually and collectively responsible to the legislature.

Question 9.
It is said that there is too much political interference in the working of the administrative machinery. It is suggested that there should be more and more autonomous agehcies which do not have to answer to the ministers.
a. Do you think this will make administration more people friendly?
b. Do you think this will make administration more efficient?
c. Does democracy mean full control of elected representative over the administration?
Answer:
It can be true that the political interference in the administration is increasing but in our democracy no administrative agency can be autonomous and free from the responsibility and accountability to the elected representative of the people and people themselves.

Our is a representative democracy where representative and political executive represent the will and wishes of the people and administion is carried out of the bureacray on the advice and direction of the political executive (ministers) and under the control of the elected representatives of the people (Parliament and state Legislatures) It is also true that administrative machinery is manned by experts and who are real administrator.

They also need some amount of autonomy to show the result in efficient way but they are supposed to work in the given politics., administrative apparatus. The political executives, elected representatives and the bureacracy (civil servants) must work in harmony and co-odination to serve the people and to improve the welfare of the people without interference each other’s jurisdiction.

Question 10.
Write an essay of two hundred words on the proposal to have an elected administration instead of an appointed administration.
Answer:
Today we have elected political executive and permanent non political executive. Non political executive are the civil servants who are appointed by a definite competent and authorised appointing body. UPSC makes the appointment for the All India Government Services and Central Service and the State Public Service Commission make necessary arrangement for the appointment of State Civil Services.

These appointed civil servants have definite and relevant qualifications They work according to fixed rules. They enjoy long tenure of services. The important feature is that whole civil administration machinery is supposed to be the non political. They have to work under thee brand policy framework of the political executive cabinet and also of civil code of conduct set by service rules.

In this structure the proposal of elected administration is not acceptable because it will be conjuctive politicisation of the administration. In the election of administration merit and qualification is required. Therefore incompotent and inefficient persons will be put in the key position of administration. It will lead to inefficiency and maladministration.

In the appointed administration, definite qualification is set, a definite procedure is followed to select the suitable qualified and competent candi-dates by the selection making bodies like UPSC and State Public Service Commission. These appointed administrations are known as Public Servants and they are responsible to the people. People have direct access to from civil servants.

The elected administrator may be more popular in the public, they may be in close trade of the people they may become aware familar with the problems and demands of the people, but certainly they will not be as efficent and competent as the appointed administration. Therefore there is need to strengthen the existing system of appointed administration under the guidance of elected repersentative.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for 11 Political Science Chapter 1 Constitution: Why and How? Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation.

Constitution: Why and How? NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 1

Constitution: Why and How? Questions and Answers Class 11 Political Science Chapter 1

Question 1.
Which of these is not a function of the constitution?
(a) It gives a guarantee of the rights of the citizen.
(b) It marks out different spheres of power for different branches of government
(c) It ensures that good people come to power.
(d) It gives expression to some shored values.
Answer:
(c) It ensures that good people come to power.

Question 2.
Which of the following is a good reason to conclude that the authority of the constitution is higher than that of the parliament.
(a) The constitution was framed before the parliament came into being
(b) The constitution makers were more eminent leaders than that the members of parliament.
(c) The constitution specifics how parliament is to be formed and what are its powers.
(d) The constitution cannot be amended by the parliament
Answer:
(c) The Constitution specifics how parliament is to be formed and what are its powers.

Question 3.
State whether the following statements about a constitution are True or False.
(a) Constitutions are written documents about formation and power of the government
Answer:
True

(b) Constitutions exist and are required only in democratic countries.
Answer:
False

(c) Constitution is a legal document that does not deal with ideals and values.
Answer:
False

(d) A Constitution gives its citizen a new identity.
Answer:
True

Question 4.
State whether the following inferences about the making of the Indian Constitution are Correct or Incorrect. Give reasons to support you answer.

(a) The Constituent Assembly did hot represent the Indian people since it was not elected by all citizens. Incorrect.
Answer:
It is incorrect because the constituent Assembly was a representative body in spite of the fact that it was not elected directly by the people. In fact it was an indirectly elected body. To make it representative people of all shades and opinion were gives representation by means of nomination. Constituent Assembly was dominated by Congress which was itself a representative party of all sections of the society.

(b) Constitution making did not involve any major decision since there was general concensus among the leaders at that time about its basic framework. (Incorrect)
Answer:
It is also incorrect because lot of efforts had to be made to achieve concensus on number of controvisal issues. There was no immediate consensus on the basic structure of the constitution. It was the spirit of accommodation and broad mindedness of the members of Constituent Assembly which helped in achieving consensus and taking decisions on many thorny issues.

(c) There was little originality in the Constitution, for much of it was borrowed from other countries, (correct)
Answer:
It is correct as we did not have our constitution for a long time due to being victim of British Colonialism. We were governed by the laws of British Parliament. Therefore when we got independence we had to borrow many institutions form different parts of the world.

Question 5.
Give two examples each to support the following conclusions about the Indian Constitution.
(a) The Constitution was made by credible leaders who commanded people’s respact
Answer:
(a) Constitution Assembly was not constituted by direct elections but it was manned by credible leaders who commended people’s respect. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Pt. Jawahar Lai Nehru, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Alexendrowich and M.V. Pylee were some such important members of the Constituent Assembly.

(b) The constitution has distributed power in such a way as to make it difficult to subvest it.
Answer:
The Constitution has distributed the powers between centre and states as per three lists ie central list consisting 97 subjects, state list consisting 66 subjects and concurrent list with 47 subjects. No one can subvert this system of division of powers because judiciary in there to see that no area of power could be violated by any organ. For this judiciary is given power of Judicial review.

(c) The Constitution is the focus of people’s hopes and aspirations.
Answer:
The Constitution is the focus of people’s hopes because we have a constitutional: government which means the government will have to work as per provisions of the government. Therefore the ruler cannot be arbitrary. The constitution puts a check on the functioning of the government. Con-stitution is an instrument of welfare of the people. It is the embodiment of people’s values and commitments. Therefore it is the last hope of the people.

Question 6.
Why is it necessary for a country to have clear demarcation of powers and responsibilities in the Constitution? What would happen in the absence of such a demarcation?
Answer:
Separation of powers of each organ of the government i.e. Executive, Legislature and Judiciary is very necessary for the safeguard of the liberties and rights of the citizens. It all the powers are vested in one organ, it would lead to authoritarianism and arrogancy which would ultimately restrict and harm the people’s liberties and there will be mis-governance. Now a days most of the democratic governments are working on the basis of separation of powers and responsibilities.

Question 7.
Why is it necessary for a constitution to place limitation on the rulers? Can there be a Constitution that gives no power at all to the citizens?
Answer:
Constitution is the product of doctrine of Constitutionalism which stands for check on the use of powers by the rulers. Constitutionalism stands for rule by Constitutional Law to check the whims and arbitrariness of the rulers. It the rulers are not checked by such constitutional Laws, he or she would be autocratic and people’s rights and liberties will be in danger. There is hardly any Constitution in true sense which does not give any right to the citizens.

Question 8.
The Japanese Constitution was made when the US army is occupation was still in control of Japan after its defeat in the Second World War. The Japanese Constitution could not have had any provision that the US government did not like. Do you see any problem is this way of making the Constitution? In which way was the Indian experience different from this?
Answer:
It is historical fact that when The Japanese Constitution was being written, the US Army was still in control. It is also a fact that the Constitution was being written as per the likings of the US government. Since the people of Japan worshiped the Monarch (Emperor), therefore Monarchy was retained and Parliamentary democracy with Monarch as nominal head was set up.

Indian experience was totally different to that of experience of Japan in this regard. When we adopted our Constitution on 26th Jan. 1950 we were sovereign and independent democracy. Our constitution was written by duly elected, representative and sovereign Constituent Assembly. There was no any kind of control of British Government on our Constitution making process.

Question 9.
Rajat asked his teacher this question “The Constitution is a fifty year old and therefore out dated book. No one took my consent for implementing it. It is written is such a tough language that I cannot understand it. Tell me why should I Qbey this document.” It you were the teacher, how would you answer Rajat?
Answer:
Outbrust of Mr. Rajat in the form of a question to the teacher is childish based on his immaturity and mis- understanding because in fifty years of its working our Constitution has not become outdated, rather, it is in the process of evolution, retaining its’well tested and successful working of the basic features.

If I were a teacher I would have answered to Rajat in the most satisfactory way, I would have told him the meaning and purpose of the Constitution and apprised him of the circumstances and the manner in which the Constitutions was written. I would have made him understood that the language of the Constitution is legal and judiciary is there to explain and interpret it. It is not supposed to be the language of common man. Legitimate government are competent to implement the constitution.

Question 10.
In a discussion on the experience of the working of our Constitution, three speakers took three different positions.
Answer:
(a) Harbans: The Indian Constitution has succeeded in giving us a framework of democratic government
(b) Neha
The Constitution made solemn promises of ensuring liberty, equality and fraternity. Since this has not happened, the Constitution has failed.
(c) Nazima :-The Constitution has not failed us. We have failed the constitution.

Do you agree with any of these positions? If yes, why? It not, what is your own position?
Answer:
I fully agree with Mr. Harbans that’ Indian Constitution has suc-ceeded in giving us a frame work of democratic government as it is written in the preamble of the Constitution that India will be sovereign, socialistic, secular democratic Republic.

As far as Neha’s position is concerned, it is true that Constitution has ensured in its preamble the justice equality, liberty and fraternity and has also provided mechanism of achieving them in the form of Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of policy and provision of Adult franchise and also existence of independent Judiciary. Neha is wrong when she says that Constitution has failed. In fact inspite of the fact that we have not been able to build a complete equalitarian society, we cannot say that our Constitution has failed.

As a matter of fact Nazima seems to be right that the Constitution has not failed us but we have failed the Constitution. We lack in National Character. We have to learn a lot to be a good citizen. Ultimately the conclusion is that our Constitution is a perfect document having the values, philosophy and institutions suiting our ethos and goal and has the capacities to adjust itself to the changing needs.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 6 Soils Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation.

Soils NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 6

Soils Questions and Answers Class 11 Geography Chapter 6

Question 1.
Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below :
(i) Which one of the following is the most widespread and most productive category of soil?
(a) Alluvial Soil
(b) Laterite Soil
(c) Black Soil
(d) Forest Soil
Answer:
(a) Alluvial Soil

(ii) ‘Regur Soil’ is another name for the ……….
(a) Saline Soil
(b) Arid Soil
(c) Black Soil
(d) Laterite Soil
Answer:
(c) Black Soil

(iii) Which one of the following is the main reason for the loss of the top soil in India?
(a) Wind erosion
(b) Water erosion
(c) Excessive leaching
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Water erosion

(iv) Arable land in the irrigated zones of India is turning saline due to which of the following reasons?
(a) Addition of gypsum
(b) Overgrazing
(c) Over irrigation
(d) Use of fertilisers
Answer:
(c) Over irrigation

Question 2.
Answer the following questions in about 30 words :
(i) What is soil?
Answer:
Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s surface.

(ii) What are the main factors responsible for the formation of soil?
Answer:
The major factors affecting the formation of soil are relief, parent material, climate, vegetation and other life-forms and time. Besides these, human activities also influence it to a large extent.

(iii) Mention the three horizons of a soil profile.
Answer:
(1) ‘Horizon A’ is the topmost zone, where organic materials have got incorporated with the mineral matter, nutrients and water, which are necessary for the growth of plants.

(2) ‘Horizon B’ is a transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and ‘horizon r C’, and contains matter derived from below as well as from above.

(3)‘Horizo C’ is composed of loose parent material. This layer is the first stage in the soil foundation process and eventually forms the above two layers.

(iv) What is soil degradation?
Answer:
In a broad sense, soil degradation can be defined as the decline in soil fertility, when the nutritional status declines and depth of the soil goes down due to erosion and misuse.

(v) What is the difference between Khadar and Bhangarl
Answer:
Khadar is the new alluvium soil and is deposited by floods annually, which enriches the soil by depositing fine silts.
Bhangar represents a system of older alluvium soil, deposited away from the flood plains.

Question 3.
Answer the following questions in not more than 125 words :
(i) What are black soils? Describe their formation and characteristics.
Answer:
The black soil is very deep. These soils are also known as the? ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’. The black soils are generally I clayey, deep and impermeable. They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried. So, during the dry season, these soils develop wide cracks.

Thus, there occurs a kind of self ploughing’. Because of this character of slow absorption and loss of moisture, the black soil retains the moisture for a very long time, which helps the crops, especially the rainfed ones, to sustain even during the dry season, Chemically, the black soils are rich in lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. They also contain potash. But they lack in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter. The colour ofthe soil ranges from deep black to grey.

(ii) What is soil conservation? Suggest some measures to conserve soil.
Answer:
Soil conservation is a methodology to maintain soil fertility, prevent soil erosion and exhaustion, and improve the degraded condition of the soil

Soil conservation is necessary. The important measures to conserve soil are as follows :

• Scientific land use
• Scientific crop rotation
• Contour ploughing and bunding
• Afforestation
• Construction of barriers against water gullies
• Increased use of organic manures
• Replacing flood irrigation

(iii) How do you know that a particular type of soil is fertile or not? Differentiate between naturally determined fertility and culturally induced fertility.
Answer:
Soil Survey of India, established in 1956, made comprehensivestudies of soils in selected areas like in the Damodar Valley. The National Bureau of soil survey and the Land Use Planning, an Institute under the control of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), did a lot of studies of Indian soils.

In their effort to study soil and to make it comparable at the international level, the ICAR has classified the Indian soils on the basis of their nature and character as per the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) soil taxonomy.

On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, the soils of India have been classified into :

• Alluvial soils
• Black soils
• Red and Yellow soils
• Laterite soils
• Arid soils
• Saline soils
• Peaty soils
• Forest soils.

Soils were classified on the basis of their inherent characteristics and external features such as texture, colour, slope of land and moisture 1-1 content in the soil. Based on texture, main soil types were identified as sandy, clayey, silty and loam, etc. On the basis of colour, they were red,yellow, black, etc.