Author name: Prasanna

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns: Early States and Economies Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-2/

Kings, Farmers and Towns: Early States and Economies NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 2

Kings, Farmers and Towns: Early States and Economies Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 2

Question 1.
Discuss the evidences of craft production in early historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidences from Harappan cities ?
Answer:
The towns of Harappa have been widely excavated. From excavations, we have found evidences about the Harappan craftsmanship. Contrary to it, the excavation of the early historical towns is not possible because in these regions, people still live. Even then, we have found a wide range of artefacts. There are certainly other evidences of things produced by the craftsmen.

The craft production in early towns :

(i) From these sites, fine pottery bowls and dishes have been found. They had a glossy finish. They were known as Northern Black Polished Ware. They were probably used by the rich people.

(ii) There have been evidences of ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels and figurines. There were also a wide range of things which were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.

(iii) The donor inscriptions tell us that the washermen, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials and religious teachers lived in these towns. The blacksmiths made things from iron. There are no evidences of iron in the towns of Harappa.

(iv) The craft producers and merchants had formed their guilds or shrenis. They bought the raw material and went in for regulated production. In the end, they marketed the finished goods.

Question 2.
Describe the salient features of Mahaj anapadas.
Or
State any three features of Mahaj anapadas. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Answer:
In the early texts of Buddhism and Jainism, we find a mention of sixteen states under the name of Mahajanapadas. Though the names of all these Mahajanapadas are not uniform in these books, yet the names of Vajji, Magadha, Kaushal, Kuru, Panchal, Gandhar and others have been noted. It indicates that all these Mahajanapadas must have been very important.

Main Characteristics : The main features of the Mahajanapadas are as follows :
(i) Most of the Mahajanapadas were ruled by a king. But a group of people ruled those states which were known as Republics. Every person of this group was called a king. Lord Mahavira and Lord Buddha had relation with this Republics. Like the Republics of Vajji, in some other states, the king and the people had a collective control over the economic resources.

(ii) Every Mahaj anapada had its own capital and was often surrounded by a fort. The fortification of the capital was needed for the maintenance of its border forces and economic resources for the officials.

(iii) Approximately in the 6th century B.C.E., the Brahmans started composing a religious book in Sanskrit called Dharamshastras. In it, the rules were determined for all social sections including the king. It was also expected that all the rulers should be Khastriyas.

(iv) The main job of the rulers was to collect tax from the farmers, merchants and craftsmen. They also accepted offerings.

(v) It was legitimate to attack the neighbouring countries to raise money from them.

(vi) Slowly and steadily, some states started keeping their regular armed forces and other officials whereas other states were still dependent on assistant armies. The soldiers were often recruited from the farmers.

Question 3.
How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people ?
Answer:
Common masses or ordinary people left behind very few written information about their lives. That is why historians have to use different types of sources to reconstruct the lives of ordinary people. Following are some of tlfe given resources :

• Different types of foodgrains and animal bones have been found during the excavation. It gives us information about the dietry practices of the people.
• Remains of houses and pots inform us about their daily and household life.
• There is a mention of different types of crafts and craftsmen on certain inscriptions. It is a very good source of knowing about the economic life of people.
• Some inscriptions and scriptures inform us about king-subject relations, different types of taxes and miseries or happiness of people.
• Changing agricultural tools and equipments throw some light on changing life of the ordinary people.
• Merchant guilds indicate towards protection of interests of producers.
• Historians also use famous folk tales to get information about the life of common masses.

Question 4.
Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan Chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do you notice any similarities or differences ?
Answer:
The gifts given to Pandyan Chief include things like ivory, fragrant wood, fans made from the hair of deer, honey, sandalwood, red ochre, antimony, turmeric, cardamom, pepper, etc. Except these, mangoes, coconut, medicinal plants, fruits, onions, sugarcanes, flowers, areca nut, bananas and many birds and animals were also given as gifts.

Contrary to it, things produced in the village of Danguna include grass, skin of animals, charcoal, salt and other minerals, fermenting liquors, produces of khadira tree, flowers and milk.

Similarities : Except flowers, there is no similarity between both the lists. Probably the Pandyan kings could have used animal skin like the people of Danguna village.

Differences : Many differences have been found in both the lists. The main difference is the method of obtaining these things. People used to willingly and happily give gifts to the Pandyan chiefs. On contrary to it, before land grants, people of Danguna village had to give these things to the State and its officials because it was their duty.

Question 5.
List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.
Or
Give any two limitations of inscriptional evidence to construct the past. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Or
Critically examine the limitations of the inscriptional evidences in understanding political and economic history of India. (C.B.S.E 2015 (D))
Or
Describe the limitations of the inscriptional evidences. (C.B.S.E 2016 (D))
Answer:
The scholars who study the inscriptions were often very wise people. They faced the following problems :

• Sometimes the words are engraved in very light colours. It is very hard to decipher them.
• Sometimes the inscriptions are damaged. Many words are lost due to this damage.
• It is always not easy to find out the real meaning of the inscription. Sometimes the things are stated in relevance to a particular situation or time.
• Thousands of inscriptions have been found. But not all of them can be translated or understood.
• There might have been many more inscriptions. It is possible that many of them would have been damaged. These inscriptions which are available may be a part of many more which have already been damaged.
• There is another basic problem. What is important today both politically and economically may not have been mentioned in the inscriptions. For example, the inscriptions do not refer to agriculture and the joys or sorrows of daily life. They describe only special and grand occasions.
• The inscriptions reflect the views of those who write them. So we must critically analyse all the inscriptions to find out the ultimate truth.

Question 6.
Discuss the main features of the Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in the Ashokan inscriptions that you have studied?
Or
Examine the system of Mauryan administration. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Or
Explain the main features of the Mauryan administration. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Or
Describe any four features of the Mauryan administration. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))
Answer:
Ashokan inscriptions mention all the main features of the Mauryan administration like king- subjects relationships, political centres, important officers and their duties, etc. Same sort of messages were engraved on inscriptions found in western frontier province of modern Pakistan, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Uttarakhand and other places. Some of the main features evident in the Ashokan inscriptions and few others are given below :

(i) Five main Political Centres: Largest political centre of the Mauryan empire was its capital, i.e., Pataliputra. Apart from this, there is a mention of four provincial centres in Ashokan inscriptions. These four centres were Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvamagiri.

(ii) Unequal Administrative System : The Mauryan empire was quite large and included areas in the empire that were of different types like mountaineous region of Afghanistan and coastal areas of Odisha. It was not possible to establish an equal or same administrative system in such a diverse empire. But probably strict administrative control could have been there in capital of empire and other provincial centres.

(iii) Selection of Provincial Centres : Provincial centres were selected very carefully. Taxila and Ujjayini were situated on important trading routes of long journey. Suvarnagiri was important for the gold mines of Karnataka.

(iv) Providing Easy Communication : Communication along both land and riverine routes was vital for the existence of empire. It took weeks or months to reach provinces from the capital. It is obvious that arrangement of diet and protection of people moving through the routes could have been an important issue.

(v) Committee and Sub-Committees : Megasthenes mentioned about one committee and six sub-committees for coordinating the military activities.

• First sub-committee looked after the navy.
• The second managed transport and provisions.
• The third sub-committee was responsible for infantry.
• The fourth was responsible for horses, the fifth for chariots and sixth for elephants.

Activities of second sub-committee were little bit varied. It arranged for bullockcarts to carry equipments, procuring fodder for animals and food for soldiers and recruiting artisans and servants to look after the soldiers. :

(vi) Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras : Ashoka tried to maintain unity within his empire. He did this by propagating Dhamma. Concepts of Dhamma were very simple and universal. He was of the view that obeying the Dhamma will be good for people in this world and beyond this world. That is why special officers called Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed. This activity is also mentioned in his inscriptions.

Question 7.
This is a statement made by one of the best known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar : “There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss.
Answer:
A famous exponent of inscriptions, D.C. Sircar has rightly said that the inscriptions present a glimpse of every aspect of the Indian life. Regarding it, many examples can be cited, a few of which are as follows:

(i) Determination of State Expansion : From the inscriptions, we come to know a lot about the expansion of states by the kings. The ancient kings got installed the inscriptions within the borders of their states. Hence, the areas where inscriptions were found are believed to be the part of his state.

(ii) Names of Kings : From the inscriptions, we also come to know about the names of various kings. Earlier we were unable to know these names from any other source. For example, many titles like Devanampiya (beloved of the Gods) and Piyadassi (pleasant to behold) were used for king Ashoka. All these names are known from the inscriptions installed by him.

(iii) Information about Historical Events : We also know a lot about historical events from the inscriptions. All the major events in the life of Samudragupta can be known from Allahabad Prashasti. The inscriptions of Ashoka throw light on the Kalinga war and its grave consequences. Similarly we know a lot about the ups and downs in the life of Chandragupta Vikramaditya, Raja Bhoj, Pulkeshin-II from various inscriptions.

(iv) Information about the Character of Kings : The inscriptions also present a glimpse about the character of the kings. They tell us that Ashoka was a lover of his subjects. He did a lot for their welfare. All the inscriptions prove him to be a king, protector of animals and lover of the family system. Allahabad Prashasti presents Samudragupta as a great warrior and scholar.

(v) Information About Land Systems and Administration : There are many important inscriptions which tell us about the land donated by the kings and the samants. They provide useful information about the system and administration of land in the ancient India. Most of these inscriptions were written on copper plates. They are found in almost all the ancient languages. They give detailed information about the villages, land and revenue given to the beggars, Brahmanas, Temples, jagirdars and officials.

(vi) Time Line : The inscriptions contribute a lot in determining the historical dates and periods of war. We can determine their time from the script and style of writing on the inscriptions.

(vii) Information about Historical Literature : From the language of the inscriptions we come to know about the level of literature. We also come to know in which parts of the country were spoken languages like Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Tamil and Telugu. The inscriptions also tell us about the status of these languages in the country.

(viii) Information about Languages and Religion : The language of the inscriptions inform us about the religions of those times. In ancient times, Sanskrit language was identified with the Hinduism. Similarly, Prakrit language was associated with Buddhism.

(ix) Information about Love for Art : The inscriptions have been prepared by engraving stones and caves, they tell us about the love for art. The inscriptions of Ashoka are the model of excellence of the Mauryan period.

(x) Information about Social’ Classes : The inscriptions tell us a lot about the social classes of those times. We also come to know that during those times, there were not only the ruling class but also weavers, goldsmiths, washermen, ironsmiths, traders and farmers. Thus, we see that all the inscriptions were the mirror of the Indian life and culture.

Question 8.
Discuss the notions of Kingship that developed in the post-Maiiryan period.
Answer:
The ideas which-were developed about Kingship in the post-Mauryan period had a very distinctive feature and that was ‘Divine Theory of Kingship’. Kings started to associate themselves with Gods and Goddesses to achieve higher status. Kushana rulers, who ruled from Central Asia upto western India, used this method in a better way. Kushana history was reconstructed through inscriptions and literary traditions. The notion of kingship which Kushanas wished to project is perhaps best evidenced in the coins and sculptures.

I. Kushana Rulers :
(i) Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found in Matt near Mathura. Some scholars are of
opinion that Kushanas might have considered themselves God-like. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title of Devaputra. They probably were inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves as sons of heaven.

(ii) A picture of king has been shown on coins of Kushana rulers. There is a picture of a deity on other side of this coin. This type of coins were issued to express their divine status.

II. Gupta Rulers :
(i) Second development in the notion of Kingship took place during the Gupta age. Many evidences of large states have been found by the 4th century including the Gupta empire. Many of these empires depended upon Samantas who were those men who maintained themselves through local resources which included control over land. Samantas respected their kings and provided military support to the rulers. Few powerful Samantas became king as weak rulers were reduced to the position of subordinates.

(ii) Literature, coins and inscriptions were used to reconstruct history of the Gupta rulers. Prashastis were used for this purpose as they were composed in praise of kings or their patrons. While historians generally try to draw facts from these compositions, those who composed and read them generally kept them as works of poets instead of accounts which are really true. For example, we can take the Prayaga Prashasti which is famous by the name of Allahabad Pillar Inscription. Its writer Harisena, described Samudragupta, his patron, as the most powerful Gupta ruler. This type of views express new ideas of Kingship.

Question 9.
To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration ?
Or
Explain the agricultural practices followed by cultivatores to increase productivity from C.600 BCE to 600 CE (C.B.S.E 2017 (O.D.))
Answer:
The demand for taxes by the kings had considerably increased during the period from 600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E. To fulfil this demand for more taxes, the farmers started finding all new means to increase the production of their crops. Consequently following changes took place in the means and methods of agriculture :

(i) Prevalence of Ploughs : One method that helped in increasing the production was the popularity of plough. The use of a plough started in 6th century B.C.E. in the valleys of Ganga and Cauveri. The plough with an iron tip was used in areas which received ample rainfall. It was used in fertile land which resulted in increasing the production of paddy. No doubt the farmers had to work a lot to achieve this target.

(ii) Use of Spade : Though plough helped in increasing the production yet its use was limited to only some areas. In Punjab and Rajasthan, which had less rainfall, the plough was used in the early period of the 20th century. Those farmers who lived in the north-east and mid-mountainous regions, used spade to dig the fields. The spade was quite useful in such areas.

(iii) Artificial Irrigation : Another method to increase the production was artificial irrigation. For this purpose, the wells, tanks and canals were used. These were developed by the people individually. At some places, farmers also joined hands and worked collectively to develop these means of irrigation. However, kings and other dominating elite people developed wells, ponds and canals individually for irrigation of land.

Impact of the new Methods of Agriculture :
The production in the fields increased considerably because of these modern techniques but many differences also emerged among the people because of these new methods. In Buddhist stories, we find a mention of labourers, small farmers and big Zamindars. It shows diverse social classes and the position of different people in the society. In Pali language, the word for small farmers and

Zamindars was Grihapati. The big Zamindars and village chiefs were considered very powerful and strong. They often had a control over small farmers. The post of village chief was often hereditary. The texts of Tamil Sangam also mention different classes of people in the villages. For example, there were Vellalar or big landlords, Halwaha or Ulwar and Das Animal. It is possible that these diverse positions were because of the differences in the ownership of land, labour and new technology. In such a situation, the ownership of land become quite important.

Map Work

Question 1.
Compare Maps 1 and 2, and list the Mahajanapadas that might have been included in the Mauryan empire. Have any Ashokan inscriptions been found in these areas ?


Answer:
Mahajanapadas were mainly expanded in North India. Whole of North India was included in the Mauryan empire. Probably all Mahajanapadas could have been included in Mauryan empire. It can be listed as follows :

• Kamboj
• Kandhar
• Kuru
• Panchala
• Shurasend
• Matsya
• Koshala
• Kashi
• Malla
• Vajji (Vriji)
• Magadha
• Vatsa
• Chedi
• Anga
• Avanti
• Ashmaka (at the banks of river Godavari in south India).

Inscriptions of Ashoka have been found at all these places.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-3/

Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3

Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 3

Question 1.
Explain why patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families.
Answer:
Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son’ grandson and so on. The elite families included the royal families or the families of the rich. The principle of patriliny would have been essential for them on account of the following reasons:

(i) To Carry Forward the Dynasty : According to Dharamshastras, it is the son who carries forward the dynasty and daughters cannot do so. That is why, all the families wish for sons and not daughters. This also becomes clear from a couplet of Rig Veda. In this couplet, the father wishes for, at the time of the marriage of his daughter that she should bear best sons with the grace of Lord Indra.

(ii) To Escape from Disputes Concerning Inheritance : The parents did hot like that there should be disputes in their family after their death. In the royal families, the acquisition of throne was also included in the inheritance. After the death of the king, his eldest son was entitled to inherit the throne. Similarly the property of the parents was equally divided among all the sons after the death of their parents. Most of the royal families followed the patriliny since 600 B.C.E. No doubt, this tradition had a diversity.

• If there was no son, the brother of the king sat on the throne.
• Sometimes the relatives put forward their claim to sit on the royal throne.
• In some special situations, the women like Prabhavati enjoyed the authority.

Question 2.
Discuss whether kings in early states were invariably Kshatriyas.
Answer:
According to the Dharamshastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. However many important ruling lineages perhaps had different origins. Some people considered the Mauryas to be Kshatriyas. But some Brahmanical texts described them to be of low origin. The Shungas and Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas. In fact, the political power went in the hands of those who could had support and resources. It did not depend on birth as a Kshatriya.

There were other rulers like Shakas who came from Central Asia. But the Brahmans considered them as Mlechchhas, barbarians and outsiders. Similarly, Gotami-puta Siri Satakani, the best known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, became a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas. Thus, we see that the Satavahanas claimed to be BrShmanas whereas according to the Brahmanas, the kings should be Kshatriyas.

Question 3.
Compare and contrast the dharma or norms mentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba and Matanga.
Answer:
Drona. Drona was a Brahmana teacher. He taught archery to princes of the Kuru dynasty. According to Dharamshastras, imparting education was the pious deed of the Brahmanas. In this way, Drona was performing his duty. At that time, the low caste people could not get an education and therefore he refused Eklavya to have him as his pupil.

As Eklavya had acquired a great skill in archery, Drona demanded his right thumb as his fee though it was against the religious norms. It means that at last Drona had accepted Eklavya as his pupil. In fact, Drona did such a low act just to keep his word that no one was better archer than Arjuna.

Hidimba. Hidimba was a rakshasani (ogress). All rakshasas were man-eaters except Hidimba. One day her brother asked her to capture the Pandavas so that he may eat them. But she did not follow her religion and fell in love with Bhima and married him. She gave birth to a rakshasa boy named Ghatotkacha. Thus, she did not keep up the norms of rakshasas. Matanga. Matanga was a Boddhisatta. He had taken birth in the house of a Chandala but married

Dittha Mangalika, the daughter of a merchant. After some time, a son named Mandavya Kumara was bom to them. As he grew up, he learnt the three Vedas. He offered food to 16,000 Brahmanas every day. However he refused to offer food to his father, when he, dressed in rags, reached at his door steps with a clay alms bowl in his hand.

He considered his father like an outcaste and claimed him to be unworthy of his alms. He said that his food was meant only for the Brahmanas. Matanga advised his son that he should not be proud of his birth. Then he rose in the air and disappeared. When Dittha Mangalika came to know about this incident, she went after Matanga and begged his forgiveness.

She acted like a true wife and performed her duty religiously. There was a tinge of pride in the behaviour of Mandavya. A donor is often generous. But Mandavya did not follow the norms of religion and generosity.

Question 4.
In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha Sukta.
Answer:
According to the Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda, the four Vamas emerged because of the sacrifice of Purusha, the primeval man. These Varnas were Brahamans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the fourth Varna. These Varnas had different jobs. The Brahmanas enjoyed the supreme position in the society. They used to study Dharam Shastras.

They also taught others. The Kshatriyas were brave warriors who ran the administration and administered justice. The Vaishyas were engaged in trade and agriculture. The fourth Varna was destined to serve the above three Vamas. So there was inequality in the society. In this system, the birth of a person was the basis of his/her status and prestige in the society.

The Buddhist concept was contrary to this Brahmanical notion. They accepted that there was an inequality in the society. But according to them, this inequality was neither natural nor permanent. They also rejected birth as the base of social prestige.

Question 5.
The following is an excerpt from the Mahabharata in which Yudhisthira, the eldest Pandava, speaks to Sanjay, a messenger :
Sanjaya, convey my respectful greetings to all the Brahmanas and the chief priest of the house of Dhritarashtra. I bow respectfully to teacher Drona …………………. I hold the feet of our preceptor Kripa…… (and) the chief of the Kurus, the great Bhishma. I bow respectfully to the old king (Dhritarashtra). I greet and ask after the health of his son Duryodhana and his younger brothers ……………… Also greet all the young Kuru warriors who are our brothers, sons and grandsons ……………… Greet above all him, who is to us like father and mother, the wise Vidura (born of a slave woman) ………………. I bow to the elderly ladies who are known as our mothers. To those who are our wives you say this, “I hope they are well- protected.” …………….. Our daughters-in-law born of good families and mothers of children greet on my behalf. Embrace for me those who are our daughters ………… The beautiful, fragrant, well- dressed courtesans of ours, you should also greet. Greet the slave women and their children, greet the aged, the maimed (and) the helpless. Try and identify the criteria used to make this list in terms of age, gender, kinship ties. Are there any other criteria? For each category, explain why they are placed in a particular position in the list.
Answer:
Besides age, gender, and kinship ties, there are many other bases to make this list. For example, the respect for teachers, brave warriors, slaves and their sons. All these have been given a due place in the list keeping in mind their social status :

• First of all, the highest honours have been bestowed on the Brahmans, the Purohits and the Gurus who were all widely respected.
• Secondly, respect has been shown to fraternal kins who are also like parents.
• Thereafter those have been placed who are younger or equal in age.
• In this order, the young Kuru warriors have been respected.
• After this, the women have been given the due place. In this order come the mothers, wives, daughters-in-law and daughters. They also include beautiful dasis and their sons.
• The orphans and handicapped have also not been ignored. Yudhisthira also salutes or greets them.

Question 6.
This is what a famous historian of Indian literature, Maurice Winternitz, wrote about he Mahabharata : “Just because the Mahabharata represents more of an entire literature… and contains so mush and so many kinds of things, (it) give (s) us an insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk.” Discuss.

Answer:
There is no denying the fact that Mahabharata represents whole of literature and shows a very beautiful picture of all the aspects of public life of contemporary Indian folk. This epic thrws the following lights on the life of Indians :
(i) Social Life

(a) Four Varbas : Society was divided into four Varnas and Varna system was not strict. There was no restriction on people to adopt their hereditary occupation. For example, Parshuram was known as a Kshatriya even if he was Brahmana. Brahman’s place in the society was not supreme.

(b) Status of Women : Women had very good status in the society. They were highly respected. They had the right to select their husband through the custom of ‘Suyamuas’.

(c) Age of Courage : Age of Mahabharata was an age of volour and bravery. Dying in the battlefield was considered very prestigeous. People believed that one who dies in the battlefield goes straight to heaven. Protection of weaker sections was also considered as an act of bravery.

(d) Social Evils : Some social evils also existed in the society. Playing the game of dice, endogamy, polygamy, betraying the enemy were common things that prevailed in the society.

(ii) Political Life :
(a) Large empires : King was the head of the state and all the power of the state rested in his hands. There was no restricion on these powers. However there were ministers to advice the king in administrative functions but the kings were not bound to accept their advice.

(b) Life of Kings : Kings used to live with great pomp and show. They had splendid palaces and used to adopt many titles. They had an ambition to become Chakravarti King. For this, they used to organise Ashvamedha yajna. There were many dancers in their courts. Drinking liquor and gambling were a part of their characters.

(iii) Economic Life :
(a) Agriculture : Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Even kings themselves used to plough the land. Land was very fertile.

(b) Animal Rearing: Animal rearing was another occupation of the people. Cow, bull, horses and elephants were important rearing animals.

(iv) Religious Life :

(a) Worshipping New Gods and Goddesses :
In Mahabharata age, people started to worship new gods and goddesses, except Vedic gods and goddesses, and some of them were Parvati, Durga, Vishnu, Brahma, etc.

(b) Believe in Incarnation : People also belived that god takes birth. It was believed that god Vishnu took birth in the form of Lord Rama and Lord Krishna and people started to worship them them as well.

(c) Karma theory and Reincarnation : People also believed in Karma theory and reincarnation. They believed that one has to face all of his good or bad deeds of this life in his next life or birth.

(d) Stress on Yajnas : People in this epic age greatly stressed on Yajnas. Many new methods of yajnas were started in this age.
Actually, like any other epic, Mahabharata in an epic which shows a live picture of wars, forests, palaces and towns. Culturally also Mahabharata is very important. This epic has given a content to sculptors, plays and dance forms.

Question 7.
Discuss whether the Mahabharata could have been the work of a single author.
Or
Who composed the original story of Mahabharata ? Describe the various stages through which Mahabharata was completed between the fifth century BCE. and 100 CE. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (CD), 2014 (D))
Or
What do you know about the authors and the period when Mahabharata was compiled ? (C.B.S.E. 2017 (O.D.))
Answer:
It is not possible for a single author to compose the entire Mahabharata. It seems to have been composed between 500 B.C.E. to 100 C.E. As a result, many episodes have been incorporated in it from time to time. Some of the stories mentioned in it were already popular among the people. As Mahabharata was written in a very long time, it seems as if no single author would have written it.

Different Authors
The following suggestions are given regarding the authors of Mahabharata :
(i) The original story of Mahabharata was written by Bhatt-Sarthis. They were called as Sutas. They generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield. So they composed poems to celebrate the victories and achievements of various warriors. These compositions were circulated through oral method.

(ii) From the 5th century B.C.E., the Brahmanas took over the story and began to write it in the form of an epic. The story moved around the Kurus. As the Kurus and Panchalas had attained kingdom from chiefdom, it is possible that these new kings might have wanted their history to be recorded and preserved in a more systematic way. Besides, old social values were replaced by new norms. So it is possible that such upheavals might have necessitated the re-writting of the epic story.

(iii) Another phase in the composition of the epic task of Mahabharta started between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E. This was the time when the worship of Vishnu was becoming quite important. Krishna who was one of the most important characters in the epic, was identified with Vishnu.

(iv) Therefore between 200 and 400 C.E., many didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added in the main story. Originally the text of Mahabharata had 10,000 verses. But after addition of didactic section, it comprised of 1,00,000 verses.

(v) However the enormous composition of Mahabharata is traditionally attributed to Vyasa, a famous sage.

Question 8.
How important were gender differences in early societies? Give reasons for your answer.
Or
State whether gender differences were really important in the early societies from C. 600 BCE to 600 CE. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (O.D))
Or
“Brahmanical texts reinforced gender access to property in the early societies.” Analyse the statement with examples.
(C.B.S.E. 2019 (Comp.))
Or
Describe the ideal of patriliny and Gendered access to property prevailing during 6th century B.C.E. to 6th century C.E. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (D.))
Answer: There were three main reasons of gender differences in early societies and these were :
(i) Gender inequality, patrilineal system
(ii) Gotra of woman
(iii) Right over property

(i) Gender inequality : Earlier societies were male dominated and were run according to the patrilineal system. That is why male child was desired in every type of family as sons were important for the continuity of the partilineage. Daughters were viewed rather differently in this system. They had no right over ancestral resources. They were expected to marry out of their gotras. This custom of marriage is known as ‘exogamy’. It means that young girls and women of reputed families were regulated in a way that they could marry at right time and with right person. This gave rise to the belief that Kanyadana was an important religious duty of the father.

(ii) Gotra of Women : From C. 1000 B.C.E. onwards, people were classified into gotras by Brahamanas. Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer as all the members of that gotra were assumed as the descendants of that seer. There were two important rules of gotras:

(a) Woman had to adopt gotra of her husband after her marriage.

(b) Members of same gotra could not marry with each other. But some evidences have been found in which these rules were not obeyed. For example, some of the Satavahana rulers had more than one wife (polygamy). A study of the names of wives of Satavahana rulers revealed that a few of them had names derived from gotras such as Gotama and Vasistha which were their father’s gotras.

They probably had retained these names instead of adopting names of their husbands gotras. Some women also belonged to the same gotra as of their husbands. This fact was against the rules of exogamy. This fact actually exemplified an alternative practice that of endogamy or marriage within the kin group. This type of marriage still exists in many communities of South India. These sorts of marital relations give strength to organised communities.

Satavahana rulers were identified through the names derived from that of the mother. Although this may suggest that mothers were important but we should note down the fact that succession to the throne, among Satavahanas, was generally patrilineal.

(iii) Access to Property : According to Manusmriti, ancestral property of parents should be distributed (after their death) equally among all the sons. But eldest son should be given special share. Women could not demand their share in these ancestral resources. But they had the right over the gifts given to them at the time of their marriage. It was known as stridhana or woman’s wealth. This wealth could be inherited by her children. Their husbands had no right over this wealth. But Manusmriti restricts women to secretly collect any valuable goods or familial property without the permission of their husbands.

Some evidences indicate that yet women of upper class had resources within their reach but still land, animals and wealth were under the control of males. In other words, social differences among men and women were increased because of the difference in access of resources or property.

Question 9.
Discuss the evidences that suggest that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and marriage were not universally followed.
Or
Describe the rules of marriage during the period C. 600 B.C.E. — 600 C.E. I (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Or
“Because of the diversity of the Indian subcontinent there have always ” been population whose social practices were not influenced by the I Brahminical ideas during 600 B.C.E. — 600 C.E. Examine the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D)
Answer:
The Brahmans considered their view-point as universally accepted. They believed that their rules were followed every where. But in reality, it was not so. In fact, there was no universal impact of the Brahmanas because of regional diversities and lack of proper communication. In other words, we can say that the rules framed by the Brahmanas were not adhered every where. The following evidences have been found in this regard:

(i) Diversity in Family Life. We accept family life usually with ease. But all families are not the same. There is always diversity in human relations and activities. In reality, family is a part of a big group. It is a part of larger network of people defined as relatives or kinfolk. However, the familial ties are natural as they are based on blood relations. For example, such relations are kept in different ways. Some societies regard cousins as blood relatives whereas others do not think so.

We can know a lot about elite families. But it is very difficult to have a full view of the relationships of ordinary people. The historians have made efforts to analyse and examine attitude towards family and kinship. The Mahabharata is a story of a war between two groups of cousins, i.e., the Kauravas and the Pandavas. This war was fought for land and power. It was fought for eighteen days in which the Pandavas emerged victorious.

(ii) Rules of Marriage. The sons were considered important to continue the patrilineage. So the daughters had no claims to the resources of the household. They were married into families outside the kin. This system was called exogamy which literally meant marrying outside one’s kin or gotra. The women of high status families were married to the right persons at right time. Thus, Kanayadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.

As the new towns emerged, the social life became more complex. The people bought and sold their products in the cities. So they shared the views with each other. Hence the Brahmanas laid down codes of social behaviour in great detail. They expected all the Brahmanas in particular and the others in general to follow these rules. Later on, these rules were enshrined in Dharamashastras.

These texts recognised eight forms of marriage out of which four were considered as good and the other four were considered as condemnable. The condemnable marriages were solemnised by those who did not accept Brahmanical norms. Inscriptions of Satavahana rulers indicate that they did not followed the method of exogamy of Brahmanas. They had many queens and even from their own gotra. This fact is an example of endogamy method or marital relations within kinfolk.

Map Work

Question 10.
Compare the map in this chapter with Map I in Chapter 2. List the Mahajanapadas and cities located near the Kuru-Panchala lands.
Answer:

Indications – Mahajanapadas: Malla, Koshala, Sakya, Avanti, Matsya, Shurasena Cities : Hastinapur, Indraprastha, Mathura, Virata, Kaushambi,Sarnath, Varanasi, Ayodhya, Bodh Gaya, Pataliputra, Vaishali, Kushinagara, Pava, Lumbini, Kapilavastu, Shravasti and Ujjayini

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-6/

Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 6

Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 6

Question 1.
Explain with examples what historians mean by the integration of cults.
Answer:
Many historians have tried to understand the integration of cults. They found that there were at least two processes at work. First of all, there was a process of disseminating Brahmanical ideas. For example, all the Puranic texts were composed, compiled and preserved in simple Sanskrit verse. It was done so that they may be accessible to all women and the Shudras who were generally excluded from Vedic learning. Secondly, the Brahmans accepted and reworked the beliefs and practices of these and other social categories. They were engaged in a continuous dialogue between great Sanskritic Puranic traditions and little traditions throughout the land.

For example, at Puri in Orissa, the principal deity of  Vishnu was identified as Jagannatha which meant ‘Lord of the World’. The terms of great and little traditions were coined by Robert Redfield, a sociologist of the 20th century. Such examples of integration can also be seen in the cults of goddesses.

The goddess was often worshipped in the form of a stone smeared with ochre. These local deities were usually incorporated within the Puranic framework by providing them with an identity as a wife of the principal male deities. For example, Lakshmi is associated with Vishnu as his wife and Parvati with Shiva as his wife.

Question 2.
To what extent do you think the architecture of mosques in the sub- continent reflects a combination of universal ideas and local traditions ?
Answer:
The Muslim rulers in the sub-continent got many mosques built. Their architecture was a complex blend of a universal faith and local traditions. Most of the features of these mosques are universal. They had a special orientation towards Mecca. It was evident from the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit).

But there were also many variations in their architecture. These variations can be seen in the roofs and the building materials. For example, a mosque was built in Kerala in the 13th century. Its roof resembled the Shikhar of the temple. Contrary to it, the roof of Atia Mosque in Bangladesh is round. The Atia Mosque was made of bricks. However the Kashmiri wood has been used in Shah Hamdan Mosque built in Srinagar on the banks of Jhelum river.

Question 3.
What were the similarities and dissimilarities between be-sharia and ba-sharia Sufi tradition ?
Answer:
There were some mystics in the Islam religion. They gave radical interpretation of the Sufi ideals. Many of them hated the Khanqah. They took to mendicancy and observed celibacy. They ignored rituals and adopted asceticism in their lives. They were known by different names such as Qulandars, Madaris, Malangi and Haidaris. They deliberately defined the sharia. So they were often called as be- sharia. On the other hand, the ba-sharia Sufis were those Sufis who complied with the ideas of Islam. However, both kinds of people belonged to Islam.

Question 4.
Discuss the ways in which the Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas expressed critiques of the caste system.
Answer:
Alvars and Nayanars were the Bhakts or Saints of Tamil Nadu. The Alvars were devoted to Vishnu whereas Nayanars were the devotees of Shiva. They travelled from place to place and sang hymns in praise of their gods. They built many temples at sacred places. Later on, these temples developed into centres of pilgrimage.

(i) Some historians stated that the Alvars and Nayanars started a movement against the caste system. They protested against the dominance of Brahmans and wanted to reform the caste system. That is why, all the Bhakats belonged to different castes and social strata of life. They ranged from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators to untouchables.

(ii) The compositions of Alvars and Nayanars were as important as the Vedas. Their main anthology of compositions was the Nalayira Divyaprabandham which was described as the Tamil Veda. In other words, this work of the Alvars was considered as important as the Vedas.

(iii) The Virashaivas belonged to Karnataka and were the followers of Basavanna. They challenged the Brahmanical social order and their idea of caste. They also opposed the pollution attributed to certain groups of Brahmanas.

Question 5.
Describe the major teachings of either Kabir or Guru Nanak, and the ways in which these have been transmitted.
Or
Explain the teachings of Kabir. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Or
Describe briefly the message and teachings of Baba Guru Nanak. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Or
‘Kabir was and is to the present a source of inspiration for those who questioned entrenched social institutions and ideas in their search for divine’. Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Or
“Kabir is perhaps one of the most outstanding examples of a poet-saint of 14th-15th centuries.” Substantiate the statement with reference to his description of ultimate reality. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))
Or
Explain giving examples the traditions and philosophy of Baba Guru Nanak Dev. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (D))
Kabir had an important place among all the poet-saints. His teachings are as follows

• He described the ultimate reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir. He also used terms like alakh (the unseen) and nirakar (the formless). These words were drawn from Vedantic traditions.
• He repudiated idol-worship and polytheism.
• He emphasised the Sufi concept of zikr and ishq (love) to express the Hindu practices of nam- smaran (remembrance of God’s name).
• He believed that God was one though his names are different.
• He referred to God as formless.
• He stated that salvation can be attained through Bhakti.
• He opposed the religious rituals of both Hindus and Muslims.
• He was against caste discriminations.

Expression of views

Kabir expressed his views in the language that was spoken and understood by the common people. After his death, the* followers spread his views through various means of communication. From here it is quite clear that Kabir was a source of inspiration for those who questioned entrenched social institutions and ideas in their search for divine.
Guru Nanak Dev Ji and his teachings : Guru Nanak Dev Ji was born in 1469, at Nankana Sahib near the River Ravi. This place is now in Pakistan. He was born in a Hindu family and learnt Persian, Arabic, Hindi and Mathematics. He was married at a very young age. However he remained aloof from this mundane world and travelled widely. He spent most of his time in the company of Sufi saints and Bhaktas. His main teachings are as follows :

• He advocated nirguna bhakti. He firmly repudiated and rejected the religious practices like sacrifices, ritual baths, idol worship and austerities.
• He rejected the scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims.
• He stated that the Almighty had no gender or form.
• He proposed that all his followers should connect to the Divine by remembering and repeating the Divine Name.

In fact, Guru Nanak Dev Ji expressed his ideas through hymns called ‘shabads’. He expressed all his views in Punjabi, the language of the region. He recited his ‘shabads’ in various ragas.

Question 6.
Discuss the major beliefs and practices that characterised Sufism.
Answer:
In the early centuries of Islam, a group of religious minded people turned to asceticism and mysticism and were called as Sufis. Major beliefs and practices of Sufism are given below :

(i) Sufis criticised the dogmatic definitions and scholistic methods of interpreting the Quran and Sunna (traditions of the Prophet) given by theologians. Sufis, thus, interpreted the Quran on the basis of their personal experiences.

(ii) They gave emphasis on seeking salvation through great devotion and bhakti of God.

(iii) They regarded Prophet Muhammad as a perfect human being and preached to follow the Prophet Muhammad.

(iv) They were in favour of zikr, sama, singing, dance and training of mind, through different methods under the guidance of any Auliya or Pir.

(v) They gave stress on mendicancy and celibacy. They ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism.

(vi) They used to go for Ziyqmt, to tombs of Sufi saints. Music and dance were also parts of Ziyarat. The Sufis remember God either by reciting the divine names or evoking his presence through Sama or performance of mystical music. Sama was integral to the Chishtis, and exemplified interaction with indigenous devotional traditions.

(vii) According to Sufis, God is one and is all-powerful. Everyone is his creation. That is why all are equal.

(viii) According to Sufism service of mankind and needy people is as equal to the devotion of God. That is why a common kitchen (langar) was being run in Khanqah of Shaikh Nizam-ud-din Aulia which was being run on ‘futuh.’ (unasked for charity). From the morning till late night this kitchen was being run to provide food for all sections of the society.

(ix) A major feature of Sufism was austerity including maintaining a distance from worldly power.

Question 7.
Examine how and why rulers tried to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars and the Sufis.
Answer:
Nayanar and Alwar saints had a lot of respect among Vellal peasants. So many rulers tried to get their support. For example, the Chola kings got magnificent temples built to seek divine support. Many stone and metal statues or idols adorned these temples. They gave a concrete shape to the imagery of saint-poets who composed hymns in the language of the common people.

The Chola rulers also started the singing of Shiva hymns in the Tamil language. They also took the responsibility of compiling a new book of bhakti songs. An inscription of 945 C.E. tells us that Chola King Parantak-I got built metalled statue of saint-poet Appa Sambandar and Sundarar in the Shiva Temple. These idols were shown to the people during processions.

Sufi saints and rulers

1. Sultan : The Sultans knew that most of his people belonged to Islam. So when the Turks established the Delhi Sultanate, they rejected the demand of Ulma to introduce Shariat. They did so to avoid any kind of opposition from their people who were mainly non- Muslims. So they took the help of Sufi saints who considered their spiritual authority as the blessing of God. They were not dependent on the explanation of Shariat by Ulma.

Some people believed that the Auliya could intercede on behalf of God in order to improve the material and spiritual conditions of the common people. That is why, the kings often wanted to have their tombs in the vicinity of the Sufi shrines. They used to visit the dargahs of Sufi saints. The king who first visited the dargah of Shaikh Muin-ud-din Chishti at Ajmer was Sultan Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq (1324-51). However, the first monument on the tomb of Shaikh was built by King Ghiyas-ud- din Khilji in the fifteenth century. As this dargah was on the road that linked Delhi with Gujarat, it was visited by many travellers.

2. Sufi Saints and Mughal Emperor Akbar :
This dargah at Ajmer had become quite popular in the 16th century. The devotional hymns of those travellers who visited this dargah over the years inspired Emperor Akbar to visit this shrine. Akbar came to this dargah fourteen times. Sometimes he visited this place twice or thrice a year.

Sometimes he visited this dargah to seek blessings for new victory and sometimes he came to seek the fulfilment of his desires. He also visited this holy place on the birthday of his son. Akbar kept this tradition till 1580. He donated a lot on all such occasions. For example in 1568, he donated a big cauldron (death) so that food may be prepared for all the pilgrims. He also got built a mosque in the compound of the dargah.

Question 8.
Analyse, with illustrations, why Bhakti and Sufi thinkers, adopted a variety of languages to express their opinions.
Answer:
The Bhakti and Sufi thinkers used the languages of the common people to express their opinions. They often spoke in local languages which was well-understood by the common people. Had they used a few distinct languages, they would not have reached to all the people and would have gone extinct. Hence, their use of the local languages proved very significant.

• The Alvars and the Nayanars made use of the Tamil language.
• Bhakat Kabir wrote his poems mostly in saint language which was the distinct language of the Nirguna poets.
• The Sufi saints also used the local languages. For example, Baba Farid used the Punjabi language.
• Guru Nanak Dev Ji also preached in Punjabi language.
• The Chishtis also adopted the local languages. They conversed in Hindavi, the language of the common people.
• The poets of Bijapur and Karnataka wrote short poems in Dakhani, a variant of Urdu.

Question 9.
Read any five of the sources included in this chapter and discuss the social and religious ideas that are expressed in them.
Answer:
(i) The Chaturvedin Brahmanas were well versed in the four Vedas. They did not keep a devotion of service towards Lord Vishnu. That is why Lord Vishnu loved those servants who expressed their love for their feet.

(ii) Servants or Dasas were not included in the Varna System.

(iii) Brahmanas used to pour milk on a serpent carved in stone. But if a real serpent came they tried to kill him. This thing was also evident in serving food. They used to offer dishes of food to the images of God which cannot eat but they clearly denied to give food to the servant of God who could eat.

(iv) Mughal rulers, especially Akbar, used to respect all the religions and used to protect and patronage them. People of all the religions were allowed to construct their places of worship. Aurangzeb also used to help religious teachers of different sects.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-5/

Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 5

Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 5

Question 1.
Write an essay on ‘Kitab-ul-Hind.’
Or
Explain the structure adopted by Al-Biruni in each chapter of his works.(C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Or
State any two features of ‘Kitab-ul-Hind.’ (C.B.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))
Answer:
Kitab-ul-Hind is a work of Al-Biruni written in Arabic. Its language is simple and lucid. It is a detailed epic which is divided in 80 chapters which include subjects like religion and philosophy, astronomy, festivals, manners and customs, alchemy, weights and measures, social life, iconography laws and metrology.

Al-Biruni used a distinctive structure in each chapter. It starts with a question, then there is some description based on Sanskritic traditions and in the end it has the comparison with other cultures. Some modern day philosophers suggest that he was more inclined towards Mathematics. That may be the reason why his book is, almost geometric structure, remarkable for its precision and predictability.

Question 2.
Compare and contrast the perspectives from which Ibn-Battuta and Bernier wrote accounts of their travels in India.
Answer:
Ibn-Battuta and Bernier have written the account of their travels from different perspectives. Ibn-Battuta described everything that impressed and excited him because of its novelty. On the other hand, Francois Bernier had a different intellectual tradition. He wrote about whatever he saw in India. But he compared and contrasted it with the situation in Europe in general and France in particular.

He focussed on situations which seemed depressing to him. He wanted to influence the policy makers and the intelligentsia. He wanted them to take the right decisions. In fact Bernier wanted to pin-point the weaknesses of the Indian society. He considered the Mughal India inferior to the European society. On the other hand, Ibn-Battuta recorded his observations about new cultures, peoples, beliefs and values.

Question 3.
Discuss the picture of urban centres that emerges from Bernier’s account.
Answer:
According to Bernier, about 15% population lived in the towns in the seventeenth century. This percentage was quite higher than the proportion of urban population in Western Europe during the same period. Inspite of this, Bernier described the Mughal cities as ‘camp towns’. He meant to say that the Mughal cities owed their existence to the imperial camp. He believed that the cities emerged when the imperial court moved in and they declined when this court moved out. In other words, the Mughal cities lacked strong social and economic foundations. They were dependent on the imperial patronage.

The Mughal times had all kinds of towns, such as manufacturing towns, trading towns, port towns, pilgrimage towns and sacred centres. Their existence depended on the prosperity of merchant communities and professional classes. In fact the merchants were a strong community. They were called the Mahajans. Their chief was called the Seth or the Nagarseth. There were a few other groups like the physicians, teachers, lawyers, painters, architects, musicians and calligraphers. A few of them enjoyed the imperial patronage. Some others lived by serving other patrons. A few others served the common people in the crowded markets.

Question 4.
Analyse the evidence for slavery provided by Ibn-Battuta.’
Or
Explain Ibn-Battuta’s description about the slaves in India. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Answer:
According to Ibn-Battuta, slaves like any other commodity, were openly sold in the markets. They were also regularly exchanged as gifts.

• When Ibn-Battuta reached Sindh, he purchased horses, camels and slaves. He wanted to offer them as gifts to Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• When Ibn-Battuta reached Multan, he presented not -only raisins and almonds to the governor but also a slave and a horse.
• There were some female slaves in the service of the Sultan. They were experts in music and dance. Ibn-Battuta enjoyed their performance at the wedding of the sister of Sultan.
• The Sultan also employed female slaves to keep a watch on his nobles.
• The slaves were also engaged for domestic work. They carried men and women on palanquins or dola but were given low wages.
• Most families kept one or two slaves.

Question 5.
What were the elements of the practice of Sati that drew the attention of Bernier ?
Answer:
The following elements of the practice of Sati drew the attention of Bernier :

• It was a cruel practice in which the widow was made to sit on the pyre of her husband alive.
• The widow was an unwilling victim of the Sati- practice. She was forced to be a Sati.
• The people had no sympathy even for the child-widows.
• The cries of the woman going to he a Sati, did not move anyone.
• The Brahmans and the elderly women of the house participated in this practice or process.

Question 6.
Discuss Al-Biruni’s understanding of caste system.
Answer:
Al-Biruni had explained the caste system in India. He also looked for similar systems in other societies of the world. He stated that the ancient Persia had the following four social categories :

• Knights and Princes
• Monks, fire priests and lawyers
• Scientists, Astronomers and physicians
• Peasants and Artisans.

So Al-Biruni suggested that the social divisions were not unique to India. He also stated that in Islam, all people were considered equal.
Disapproval of the Notion of Pollution : Though Al-Biruni accepted the Brahmanical description of caste system yet he did not accept its notion of pollution. He believed that everything that is impure attempts to regain its original condition of purity. The Sun cleanses the air. The salt in the sea prevents the water from being polluted. Without this natural arrangement, according to Al-Biruni, life on earth would not have been possible. In fact, Al-Biruni considered the notion of social pollution as contrary to the laws of nature.

The System of Four Varnas. Al-Biruni has also given an account of the system of Varnas in the Indian society. According to him, the following varnas were found: Brahmans. They belonged to the highest caste. They were created from the head of Brahma. So the Hindus consider them as the very best of mankind.

Kshatriyas. They were also very important but below the Brahmans. They were created from the shoulders and hands of Brahma.
Vaishyas. They came at the third position as they were created from the thigh of Brahma. Fourth Varna. They stand at the bottom of social hierarchy. They were created from the feet of Brahma. There is not a big difference between the Vaishyas and Fourth varna.
Thus, we see that Al-Biruni’s description of caste system was deeply influenced by his study of normative Sanskrit Books. In fact the caste system was based on the rules framed by the Brahmans. But in real life, this system was not very rigid.

Question 7.
Do you think Ibn-Battuta’s account is useful in arriving at an understanding of life in contemporary urban centres ? Give reasons for your answer.
Or
Explain the observations of in Battuta about Indian cities with special reference to Delhi and its rampart round the city.
(C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Or
Explain the observations of Ibn Battuta about the cities of India, with special reference to Delhi. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Or
“Ibn-Battuta found Delhi as a city full of exciting opportunities.” Support your answer with evidences given by him. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Or
“Ibn-Battuta found cities in the Indian subcontinent full of exciting opportunities.” Explain the statement I with reference to the city of Delhi.(C.B.S.E. 2018)
Answer:
There is no doubt that the description of Ibn- Battuta is quite helpful in understanding the lifestyle of the Indian cities. His description is quite clear and extensive. It seems as if the true picture emerges before our eyes.
(i) Ibn-Battuta stated that Indian cities had many exciting opportunities. They were useful for those who had the necessary drive, skill and resources.

(ii) The Indian cities were densely populated. They were also prosperous and had crowded streets. They had bright and colourful markets trading in a variety of goods. They were occasionally disturbed because of wars or invasions.

(iii) According to Ibn-Battuta, Delhi was a vast city. It had a lot of population and was the largest city in India. Another big city was Daultabad in Maharashtra which challenged Delhi in size.

(iv) The markets and bazaars of the Indian cities were not only the places of the economic transactions but also the centres of social and cultural activities. Most of the bazaars had a mosque and a temple. They also had fixed places for public performances by dancers, musicians and singers.

(v) Ibn-Battuta found that many towns derived their wealth and prosperity through the appropriation of surplus from villages.

(vi) According to Ibn-Battuta, Indian agriculture was very productive. The farmers cultivated two crops a year because the land was very fertile.

(vii) The goods of India were in great demand in both West Asia and South-east Asia. So artisans and merchants earned huge profits. The sub-continent was well-integrated with inter-Asia networks of trade and commerce.

Question 8.
Discuss the extent to which Bernier’s account enables historians to reconstruct contemporary rural society.
Answer:
The assessment of Bernier about the rural society of India was not correct. It was misleading and far from truth. But there is also some truth in his descriptions which is evident .from the following examples:

(i) Bernier stated that in the Mughal Empire, the emperor owned all the land and distributed it among his nobles. This had a disastrous impact on the Indian economy and society.

(ii) Bernier did not consider the system of the crown ownership of land good. Because of this, the land-holders could not pass on their land to their children. They could also not make any long-term investments. As there was no private property in land, there was not an improved class of landlords. This system ruined the whole of agriculture. It also led to the oppression of the peasants and lowered the living standards of all sections of society.

(iii) Bernier’s view of Indian society had the following features:

• It had impoverished people. The rich people constituted a small minority.
• It had only the poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich. It had no middle class.
• The Mughal king was the king of beggars and barbarians.
• All the cities and towns were ruined. They had contaminated air.

Thus, Bernier’s descriptions of the Indian rural society brought out many social and economic differences. There’were big Zamindars as well as landless labourers who were despised as the untouchables.

Question 9.
Read this excerpt from Bernier.
“Numerous are the instances of handsome pieces of workmanship made by persons destitute of tools, and who can scarcely be said to have received instruction from a master. Sometimes they imitate so perfectly articles of European menufacture that the difference between the original and copy can hardly be discerned. Among other things, the Indians made excellent muskets, and fowling pieces, and such beautiful gold ornaments that it may be doubted if the exquisite workmanship of those articles can be exceeded by any European goldsmith. I have often admired the beauty,. softness, and delicacy of their paintings.” List the crafts mentioned in the passage. Compare those with the descriptions of artisanal activity in the chapter.
Answer:
This excerpt mentioned the crafts of making muskets and fowling pieces and making beautiful gold ornaments. Indian artisans made them with great efficiency and delicacy. These products were so beautiful that even Bernier was amazed to see these products. He wrote that he doubted whether these articles can be exceeded by any European goldsmith.

Comparison : Other artisanal activities described in the chapter are given below:
Artisans engaged in manufacturing carpets, brocades, embroideries, gold and silver goods, making shoes, carpentery, tailoring, painting, goldsmiths, varnishers, joiners, turners, manufactures of silk, brocade and fine muslins were the few artisanal activities described in this chapter. All these activities took place in royal Karkhanas. These artisans used to come every morning to the Karkhanas where they remained for the whole day. In the evening, they returned to their homes

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Chapter 6 Spatial Information Technology Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-geography-chapter-6-part-c/

Spatial Information Technology NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Chapter 6

Spatial Information Technology Questions and Answers Class 12 Geography Chapter 6

Question 1.
Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below:
(i) The spatial data are characterised by the following forms of appearance.
(a) Positional
(b) Linear
(c) Areal
(d) All of the above
Answer:
(c) Areal

(ii) Which one of the following operations requires analysis module software?
(a) Data storage
(b) Data display
(c) Data output
(d) Buffering
Answer:
(b) Data display.

(iii) Which one of the following is a disadvantage of Raster data format?
(a) Simple data structure
(b) Easy and efficient overlaying
(c) Compatible with remote sensing imagery
(d) Difficult network analysis
Answer:
(d) Difficult network analysis

(iv) Which one of the following is an advantage of vector data format:
(a) Complex data structure
(b) Difficult overlay operations
(c) Lack of compability with remote sensing data
(d) Compact data structure
Answer:
(a) Complex data structure

(v) Urban change detection is effectively undertaken in GIS core using:
(a) Overlay operations
(b) Proximity analysis
(c) Network analysis
(d) Buffering
Answer:
(d) Buffering

Question 2.
Answer the following questions in about 30 words:

(i) Differentiate between raster and vector data models.
Answer:
Raster Data Models. Raster data represents a graphic features as apattern of gird of squares a raster file would represent the image by sub-dividing the paper into a matrix of small rectangles similar to a sheet of graph paper.

Vector Data Models. Vector data models represents the object as a set of lines drawn between specific points and vector data models representation of the same diagonal line would record the position of line by simple recording the coordinates of its starting and ending points.

(ii) What is an overlay analysis?
Answer:
An overlay operation is the hallmark of GIS. An integration of multiple layers of maps using overlay operations is an useful analysis function. In the other views GIS makes it possible to overlay two or more thematic layers of maps of the same area to obtain a new map layer. Map overlay can be used to learn the changes in land use over two different periods.

(iii) What are the advantages of GIS over manual methods?
Answer:
Advantages of GIS over manual methods are:

• Maps can be drawn by quering or analysing attribute data.
• Spatial operations can be applied on integrated data base to collect new sets of knowledge.
• Now with this users can interrogate spatial features displayed and retrieve associated attribute information for display and analysis.
• Different items of attribute data can be related with one another through shared locations code.

(iv) What are important components of GIS?
Answer:
The important components of GIS are as under:

• Hardware
• Software
• Data
• People

(v) What are different ways in which spatial data is built in GIS core?
Answer:
Different ways in which spatial data is built in GIS core are as under :

• Spatial data input
• Entering of the attribute data
• Data verification and editing
• Spatial and attribute data linkages
• Spatial analysis

(vi) What is Spatial Information Technology?
Answer:
Spatial word is derived from space. It refers to the features and the phenomona distributed over a geographically definable space, thus, having physically measurable dimensions. Data that we use today have some spatial components, like an address of a municipal facility, or the boundaries of a agricultural holdings etc. Spatial Information Technology relates to the use of the technological inputs in collecting, storage, retrieving, displaying, managing and analysing the spatial information.

Question 3.
Answer the following questions in about 125 words:
(i) Discuss raster and vector data formats. Give examples.
Answer:
Graphic features are represented by raster data as a pattern of grids of squares where as vector data is helpful in representing the object as a set of lines drawn diagonally on a piece of paper. A raster file would represent this imagery subdividing the paper into a matrix of small rectangles similar to a sheet of paper called cells. Each cell is assigned aposition in the data file and given a value based on the attribute of that position. Its row and column coordinates may identify any individual pixel.


Vector Format: This representation of the same diagonal line would be record the position of the line by simply recording the coordinates of its starting and ending points. Each point would be expressed as two or three members depending on whether the representation was 2D or 3D often referred to as XY or XYZ coordinates.

(ii) Write an explanatory account of the sequence of activities of GIS related work.
Answer:
An explanatory account of the sequence of activities of GIS related work are as under:
1. Spatial data input. These could be summarised into the following two categories.
(a) Acquiring digital data site from a data supplies.
The present day data supplies make the digital data readily available which range from small scale map to the large scale maps.

(b) Creating digital data: manual input of data to a GIS involves four main stages:

• entering the spatial data
• entering the attribute data
• spatial and attribute data verification and editing.

The manual data input methods depend on whether the data base has a vector typology or grid cell.

2. Entering the attribute data. It defines the spatial entity that need to be handled in the GIS but which are not spatial.

3. Data verification and editing. This data captured into a GIS require verification for the error identification and corrections so as to ensure the data accuracy.

4. Linkage. GIS typically links different data sets. Suppose we want to know the mortality rate due to malnutrition among children under ten year of age in any state we must first combine or link the two. In one number of children of this age group another contains the mortality rate from malnitrition.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Chapter 5 Field Surveys Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation.https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-geography-chapter-5-part-c/

Field Surveys NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Chapter 5

Field Surveys Questions and Answers Class 12 Geography Chapter 5

Question 1.
Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below :
(i) Which one of the following helps most in planning for a field survey?
(a) Personal Interviews
(b) Secondary Information
(c) Measurements
(d) Experimentation
Answer:
(b) Secondary Information

(ii) Which one of the following is taken up at the conclusion of a field survey?
(a) Data entry and tabulation
(b) Report writing
(c) Computation of Indices
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(b) Report writing

(iii) What is most important at the initial stages of field survey?
(a) Outlining the objectives
(b) Collection of secondary information
(c) Defining the spatial and thematic coverages
(d) Sample design
Answer:
(a) Outlining the objectives

(iv) What level of information is acquired during a field survey?
(a) Macro level information
(b) Maso level information
(c) Micro level information
(d) All of the above levels of information
Answer:
(a) Macro level information

Question 2.
Answer the following questions in about 30 words :

(i) Why is a field survey required?
Answer:
A field survey is required because they facilitate the collection of local level information. The field survey are carried out together required information so as the problem under investigation is studied in depth as predefined objectives.

(ii) List the tools and techniques used during a field survey.
Answer:
Tools which we use during a field survey are secondary informations such as maps and other data, field observation, data generated with the help of interviewing people through questionaries.

(iii) What type of coverages need to be defined before undertaking a field survey?
Answer:
An investigator has to decide whether the survey will be conducted in the form of census for the entire population or it will be based on selected sample. If study area is not huge but composed of diverse elements then entire population should be surveyed.

(iv) Describe survey design in brief.
Answer:
In sample survey’s framework we include its size and method of studying and selecting is to be decided in relation to objectives of survey variations in population and cost and time etc.

(v) Why is the well-structured questionaire important for a field survey?
Answer:
With the questionaire we asked previously framed questions to the person to be inter-viewed. These questions should be related to the objectives to get the answer related to the problems. It is important to collect the information relevant to the objectives.