Author name: Prasanna

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 10 Colonialism and the Countryside: Exploring Official Archives Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-10/

Colonialism and the Countryside: Exploring Official ArchivesNCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 10

Colonialism and the Countryside: Exploring Official Archives Texts Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 10

Question 1.
Why was the Jotedar a powerful figure in many areas of rural Bengal ?
Or
Describe the position of the ‘Jotedars’ at the end of the 18th century. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Or
Explain how the powers of Jotedars within a village, was more effective than that of Zamindars. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Or
Why was the power of Jotedars within the village more effective than that of Zamindars ? Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Or
“Jotedars in enevitably weekened zamindars in Bengal by the end of the 18th century.” Give arguments support the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (D))
Or
Why were the Jotedar powerful ! figure in many areas of rural Bengal at the end of the Eighteenth Century? Give two reasons. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Or
Explain with examples the role of Jotedars in the permanent settlement system in Bengal. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (Comp.))
Answer:
When the Zamindars were in crisis in the eighteenth century, a group of rich peasants consolidated its position in the villages of Bengal. This class of rich peasants came to be known as Jotedars. They had a control over vast areas of land. Sometimes they had even a control on many thousand acres of land. They even controlled local trade and moneylending. They exercised immense power over the poor cultivators of the region and had become more powerful than the Zamindars. The following reasons were responsible for their strong position:

• They lived in villages therefore they had a lot of influence on many villagers.
• They opposed the efforts of the Zamindars to increase the jama of the village.
• They mobilised ryots to deliberately delay payments of revenue to the Zamindars.
• They controlled the local trade and moneylending.
• They had a control over several areas of land. They even purchased land when the estates of the Zamindars were being auctioned for failure to make payment of the revenue.

Question 2.
How did the Zamindars manage to retain control over their Zamindaris ?
Or
Explain two strategies devised by the Zamindars of Bengal to survive the pressure of high revenue demand auction of their lands. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Or
Explain two ways devised by the Zamindar of surviving of pressures of high revenue demands and possible action of their estates. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Answer:
The Zamindars adopted various means and measures to establish their control on their Zamindaris. These included the following :

• They adopted the strategy of fictitious sale of land. When a part of their estate was auctioned, their men bought the property by giving higher bids than others. Later on, they refused to pay up the purchase money due to which the estate was again auction. The same process of purchase was repeated. At last the State felt exhausted and sold the estate at a low price again to the Zamindar.
• They created hurdles in the possession of the land if anyone from outside the zamindari bought an estate at an auction.
• They transferred some of the estates in the name of women as the property of women could not be taken over.
• The Lathyals of the former Zamindars sometimes attacked the new buyers.
• Sometimes the ryots also resisted the entry of purchasers from outside.

Question 3.
How did the Paharias respond to the coming of outsiders ?
Answer:
The Paharias were the hill-folk who lived around the Rajmahal hills. They earned their living from the forest produce and practised shifting cultivation. Besides many of them were hunters, food- gatherers, charcoal producers and silk-worm rearers. They were intimately connected to the jungle life. They considered the entire region as their land. They considered it as the symbol of their identity and the base of their survival. However, they were hostile and apprehensive towards the outsiders. It is evident from the following points:

• They negotiated political relation with the outsiders. They got a regular tribute from them.
• They carried on a war with outsiders as they viewed them with suspicion and distrust.
• They resisted the inhabitation of the Santhals on the peripheris of the Rajmahal hills.

Question 4.
Why did the Santhals rebel against the British rule ?
Or
“The battle between the hoe and the plough was a long one.” Substantiate the statement with reference to the Santhals and Paharias of Raj Mahal hills during 18th century. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Or
Why did the Santhals rebel against Zamindars and the colonial power ? Give any two reasons. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Answer:
The British had failed to subdue the Paharias. They could not transform the hill-folk into settled agriculturists. So they turned to the Santhals who were ideal settlers. They demarcated a separated land for the Santhals and called it as Damin-i-Koh. All the Santhals lived within it and practised plough agriculture. They became settled peasants which resulted in the expansion of cultivation area and increase, in the revenue.

(i) By the 1850s, the Santhals rebelled against the Zamindars, moneylenders and the colonial state. They were not happy with all of these. The colonial government had imposed heavy taxes on their land. The moneylenders charged high rates of interest on loans and if any Santhal failed to pay his debt, his land was snatched by the moneylender. Besides the Zamindars also asserted control over their land.

(ii) The Santhals rose in rebellion against the British rule. They wanted to create an ideal world where they could rule themselves. So after the Santhal Revolt (1855-56), the Santhal Pargana was created taking 5500 sq. miles of land from the districts of Bhagalpur the Birbhum. It was an attempt by the British Government to reconcile the situation after the Santhal Revolt.

Question 5.
What explains the anger of the Deccan ryots against the moneylenders ?
Or
Critically examine the experiences of injustice felt by ryots on the refusal of extending loans of them after 1830s. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (C.D.))
Or
Examine the circumstances that led the Deccan ryots to revolt against the money lenders. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Or
Explain with examples how the Deccan Ryots should their anger against the money lenders in early nineteenth century. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (Comp.))
Answer:
Following were the main reasons of anger of the Deccan ryots against the money-lenders :
(i) Moneylenders refused to extend loans to ryots. Ryots felt that moneylenders were insensitive to their plight and miserable conditions.

(ii) Moneylenders were disobeying the traditional customary norms of rural areas. For example, the amount of interest could not exceed the principal amount. But in one of the case, the moneylender had charged more than ₹ 2,000 as interest on the principal amount of the 100.

(iii) Unpaid amount of interest was also being included in new loan deeds so that money-lender could remain away from the hands of law and his amount remained as it is.

(iv) No receipt was given to peasant in case of the repayment of loan.

(v) Ryots also complained of moneylenders manipulating laws and forging accounts.

Question 6.
Why Were many Zamindaris auctioned after the Permanent Settlement ?
Answer:
The Permanent Settlement of revenue was introduced in Bengal by Lord Charles Cornwallis in 1793 C.E. Under this system, the East India Company had fixed the amount of revenue to be paid by each Zamindar. Those who failed to pay the revenue were divested of their estates. These estates were later on auctioned to recover the revenue. They were sold to the highest bidder.

Question 7.
In what way was the livelihood of the Paharias different from that of the Santhals ?
Answer:
The Paharias lived around the Rajmahal hills. They were hostile and apprehensive towards the government officials. They were not willing to talk to any outside travellers. Livelihood of the Hill-Folk : The Paharias earned their livelihood by adopting the following professions:

• They practised shifting cultivation.
• They grew a variety of pulses and millets.
• They collected mahua (a flower) for food.
• They reared silk-worms and collected silk cocoons and resin for sale.
• They collected wood for charcoal production.
• They used the patches of grass on the land as pasture for the cattle.
• They hunted wild animals. ( Colonialism and the Countryside Exploring—Official Archives )
• They also raided the plains where the settled agriculturists lived.
• They resisted the intrusion of outsiders. If ever they allowed them, they negotiated political relations with them. They got a regular tribute from the Zamindars.
• They accepted toll from the traders. In return, they protected the traders and ensured that their goods were not plundered by anyone.

Livelihood of the Santhals : The Santhals had come into Bengal around the 1780s. They earned their livelihood by adopting the following jobs:

• They cleared forests and cut down timber.
• They ploughed lands and grew rice and cotton.
• They expanded cultivation and increased the inflow of revenue in the coffers of the East India Company.
• They cultivated many commercial crops for the market.
• They also dealt with traders and money-lenders.

Question 8.
How did the American Civil War affect the lives of ryots in India ?
Or
Explain the impact of American Civil War of 1861 on Indian peasants. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Or
Analyse the impact of cotton boom in India during the American Civil war. : (C.B.S.E. 2015 (O.D.))
Or
Analyse the impact of the American ; Civil war on the lives of the Ryots in ‘Deccan Countryside. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (D))
Answer:
Before the decade of 1860’s, Britain imported 3/4 of its cotton from America. The British manufacturers of cotton cloth were very much worried about their dependence of cotton over America. That is why they tried to find alternative sources of cotton supply. Cotton Supply Association was founded in Britain in 1857 and Manchester Cotton Company was formed in 1859.

Their main objective was to encourage production of cotton in every part of the world so that their Company could develop. India was seen as a country which could supply cotton to Lancashire in case of non-supply from America. ‘Indian soil and climate both were favourable for cotWh cultivation and cheap labour was also available.

American Civil War : The American Civil War broke out in 1861. It created a wave of panic in England as the raw cotton imports from America fell from 2,000,000 bails in 1861 to 5,500 bails in 1862. So England wanted to increase cotton exports from India. During this, cotton prices grew rapidly. This boom in the cotton market had a profound impact on the Deccan countryside. It had a considerable impact on the life of ryots.

Impact of the American Civil War on the Ryots : Due to the American Civil War, England wanted to get as much cotton as possible. It affected a lot the ryots of the Bombay Deccan. It is evident from the following points:

(i) The ryots found an access of limitless credit. The export merchants of Bombay gave advances to urban Sahukars. These Sahukars extended this credit to rural moneylenders on the assurance that they would provide the requisite cotton.

(ii) The ryots got ₹ 100/- as advance for every acre of cotton they planted.

(iii) The Sahukars were eager to give long-term loans to ryots.

(iv) The boom in cotton did not benefit all the ryots. While the rich peasants gained, a majority of them went under heavie

(v) As a boom in cotton market lasted for long, Indian cotton merchants began to visualise the capturing of world market in raw cotton by permanently displacing U.S.A. But this condition changed in 1865. The American Civil War came to an end and there again began production of cotton. As a result Indian export of cotton to Britain declined steadily.

Under these circumstances, moneylenders and export merchants of Maharashtra were no longer keen on providing long term loans. They observed that demand of Indian cotton is decreasing and prices of cotton are also coming down. That is why they stopped their business and refused to give advances to peasants. Now they began concentrating on recovery of loans.

Question 9.
What are the problems of using official sources in writing about the history of peasants ?
Answer:
The government or official sources are often comprehensive as they are based on enquiries, eye-witnesses, compiled statistical data and other reports. However, we come across the following problems while making use of the official sources:
(i) The official sources reflect official concerns and interpretation of events. For example, the Deccan Riots Commission specifically examined if the revenue

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-1/

Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 1

Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 1

Question 1.
List the food items available to people in Harappan cities. Identify the groups who would provide these.
Answer:

Question 2.
How do the archaeologists find socio-economic disparities in the Harappan society ? What disparities do they emphasise ?
Or
Describe how artifacts help in identifying social differences during the Harappan period. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Or
Describe briefly how the study of artifacts helps in identifying social differences of the Harappan period.(C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Or
Explain the socio-economic differences in Harappan society that archaeological finds seem to suggest. (C.B.S.E. Sample Paper 2011)
Or
Explain the strategies used by the archaeologists to understand socio¬economic differences among the Harappans. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (D))
Or
“The burials in Harappan sites reveal the economic and social differences amongst the people living within a particular culture.” Give two evidences in support of your answer. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (D))
Or
Examine how archaeologists have used burial to find out the social and economic differences amongts Harappan people. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))
Answer:
The archaeologists find many socio-economic disparities in the Harappan society. They make the following disparities as their base for further study :
1. Burials. We find many burials at the Harappan sites. At that time, the dead were generally laid in pits. Along with the dead body, different kinds of things were also kept. These things could be precious or ordinary. There was also a difference in the pits in which the dead were buried. The precious things reflected the strong economic condition of the dead. The common things were the symbol of his/her weak economic position.

2. Things of Luxury. The archaeologists also study artifacts to identify many other social and economic differences. These things can be classified as utilitarian and luxuries. The utilitarian things are objects of daily use. They are made of ordinary material such as stone or clay. They include querns, pottery and body scrubbers.

They were possessed by all the people in all the Harappan settlements. On the other hand, the luxuries were those objects which were rare and were made from costly and non-local materials or were made with the help of complicated technologies. For example, the pots of faience (a material prepared with the mixture of silica, colour and gum) were considered costly and precious because they were very difficult to make. The economic status of those societies was comparatively high where such things have been found.

Question 3.
Would you agree that the drainage system of the Harappan cities indicates town-planning? Give reasons for your answer.
Or
Describe briefly the drainage system of the Harappan cities. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (O.D.))
Or
“One of the most distinctive features of the Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage system.” Elaborate. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (O.D.))
Or
Describe the drainage system of the Harappan cities. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Answer:
We completely agree with the fact that all the Harappan cities had a carefully planned drainage system. In other words, the drainage system was an integral part of the town-planning. This system was essential to keep the city neat and clean. From this point of view, the drainage system of the Harappan cities was perfect. The domestic waste water passed through gutters to flow into the street drains.

It seems as if the streets along with the drains were laid out first. Then the residences were made along side these roads. One wall of the house always touched the side of a street so that the waste water may easily flow into the drains of the street.

The main drain was made of mud and bricks. It was covered with such bricks which could be removed for the purpose of sanitation. The gutters of the houses first fell into a sump or cess-pit. The solid in the water was accumulated here and the water flowed into the main drain. In this way, the dirty water flushed out of the city.

According to Mackay, “It is certainly the most complete ancient system as yet discovered.” In the end we can say that every house of the Harappan society was connected to the street drains which were made of bricks set in mortar. They were covered with limestone or loose bricks which could be easily removed for cleaning. In fact, the drainage system is considered a wonder of archaeology.

Question 4.
List the material used to make beads in the Harappan civilisation. Describe the process by which one kind of bead was made.
Or
Explain the techniques of craft production, especially bead making at the Harappan sites of Lothal and Chanhudaro. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (D.))
Answer:
One of the important craft of the people of Harappan civilisaiton was to prepare bands. It was mainly prevalent in Chanhudaro.

Material Used : A large variety of material was used to make the beads. It included beautiful colour stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite. Besides these, copper, bronze, gold shell, faience, terracota or burnt clay were also used.
The Process of Making Beads : The process of making beads was remarkable. It deffered according to the material. It had the following statges:

•  The beads did not have geometrical forms like the ones .made out of harder stones.
  They had a variety of shapes.
• The red colour of carnelian was obtained by firing the yellowish raw material.
• Nodules were chipped into rough shapes. Thus they were finely flaked into to final form.
• The last phase of the process incuded grinding, polishing and drilling. The specialised drills have been found at many sites like Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholavira.

Question 5.
Look at Fig 1.30 (Textbook) and describe what you see. How is the body placed ? What are the objects placed near it ? Are there any artefacts on the body ? Do these indicate the sex of the skeleton ?
Answer:

• Body has been kept in North-Southeren direction in a pit.
• Many graves contain pottery and ornaments which include jar.
• Yes, jewellery like bangles are there on the body.
• Yes, this indicates towards the sex of the skeleton, i.e., it is the body of a woman.

Question 6.
Discuss a few specialities or special features of Mohenjodaro.
Or
Describe the distinctive features of domestic architecture of Mohenjodaro.(C.B.S.E. 2017 (O.D.)
Or
“The domestic architecture of Mohenjodaro was unique.” Explain the statement with examples. (C.B.S.E. (O.D.) 2019)
Or
Describe the unique features of the urban centres of the Harappa Civilization.(C.B.S.E. 2019 (Comp.))
Answer:
Mohenjodaro was a unique and very important city of Harappan civilisation. Though it was discovered after Harappa, yet it has been very popular because of its unique features. Its special features are as follows:

1. A Planned Urban Centre : Harappa was a planned urban centre. It was divided into two sections. One section of this city was small and built on a higher place. The second section was large but it was at a lower place. The archaeologists designated the first section as the citadel and the second section as the lower town. The citadel owed its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms. It had walls on all its sides. These walls separated it from the Lower Town.

2. The Lower Town : The Lower Town was also a walled town. Most of the buildings were built on platforms which served as foundations. It has been estimated that if one worker moved about a cubic metre of earth daily, it would have needed four million person days. In other words, we can say that it required mobilisation of labour on a very large scale.

All the buildings in the city were built on the platforms. Thus,, the settlement was first planned and then implemented as per the building plan. This planning is also evident from the bricks which were both baked and sun-dried. These bricks were of standardised ratio. Their length and width was four times and twice the height respectively. Such bricks were used in all the settlements of the Harappan civilisation.

3. Well Planned Drainage System: The drainage system of the Harappan cities was also carefully planned. All the roads and streets were laid out on a grid pattern and intersected at right angles. It seems that streets having drains were laid out first. Thereafter houses were built along them. Every house had at least one wall along a street so that the domestic waste water could flow directly into the drain of the street.

4. Residence or Domestic Architecture : The Lower Town of Mohenjodaro had an expansion of residential buildings. All these buildings had a courtyard. The rooms were on all the sides of the courtyard. In the hot and dry weather, this courtyard was perhaps the centre of activities like cooking and weaving. While constructing residential buildings, the people had full concern for their privacy. These buildings did not have any windows in the walls along the ground level. Besides this, the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.

Every house had its own bathroom. It was floored with bricks. Its gutter was connected to the street drain through the wall. Some houses also had a staircase to reach a second storey or the roof. Many houses had wells. These wells were in a room which was easily approachable from outside and any body could reach it. It was perhaps built to be used by travellers. Many scholars believe that there were about 700 such wells in Mohenjodaro.

5. The Citadel : The citadel had many buildings which were used for special public purposes. The most important were the following two structures:
(i) The Warehouse : It had a vast structure. The lower portion of this building was made of bricks. Although a part of this portion is still intact, its upper portion was made of wood which decayed since long.
(if) The Great Bath : Another vast structure is the Great Bath which was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard. It had a corridor on all its sides. It had steps on both north and south sides so that one may go into it. It was made of bricks and a mortar of gypsum. It had also rooms on its three sides. One room had a large well. There was also a provision to flush the water of the tank into a huge drain. In fact, the Great Bath was a unique structure and had distinctive features. It was used for some kind of a special ritual bath.

Question 7.
List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation and discuss how these might have been obtained.
Answer:
A number of craft production centres were there in Harappan civilisation. For this, different types of raw materials could have been used. Some of the raw materials are given below :

• CarneLian (red colour)
• Jasper
• Crystal
• Quartz
• Steatite
• Copper
• Bronze
• Gold
• Shell (Or) Faience
• Terracotta or burnt day
• Different types of wood and stones
• Lapis Lazuli (blue stone)
• Nickel.

Different ways of obtaining them : Soil, wood, etc., were the raw materials which were locally available. But stones, fine quality wood, metals, etc., were procured from distant places. For this, different methods were used to obtain them such as the following:

(i) Establishment of Settlements : Harappan people established’ their settlements at those places where raw material was easily available. For example, shell was easily available in Nageshwar and Balacot. Few other places were also there like Shortughai in Afghanistan. This place was situated near to the source of lapis lazuli. In the same way Lothal for carnelian, Rajasthan and Gujarat were famous for copper.

(ii) Sending Expeditions : Sending expeditions was another policy of obtaining raw material. For example, expedition was sent to Khetri region of Rajasthan for copper and to South India for gold. Local communities were contacted through these expeditions. Availability of Harappan evidences in distant places indicates toward these contacts. Evidences found in Khetri region were given the name of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture by archaeologists. Huge reserves of copper products are found over here. Probably inhabitants of this area used to send copper to Harappan people.

Question 8.
What are the problems of .’archaeological interpretation in l reconstruction of the past ?
Or
Discuss how archaeologist reconstruct the past.
Or
Examine the problems faced by archaeologists in the interpretation of religious practices of Harappa. (C.B.8.E. 2014 (D))
Or
The problems of archaeological interpretations are perhaps most evident in the attempts to reconstruct religious fraction of Harappans. Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Answer:
There are certain problems in archaeological interpretation. Possibly most problems come in the reconstruction of religious practices. Early archaeologists feel that few unusual and unfamiliar objects are probably of religious importance. It includes terracotta figurines of women which were heavily jewelled and some with elaborate head dresses.

They were named as Mother Goddesses. Raw stone statues of men with an almost standerdised posture, seated with one hand on the knee are also included in this. Except this, statue of priest king is also a statue of this type. In other instances, structures have been assigned ritual importance. They include the Great Bath and fire alters found at Lothal and Kalibangan. Some important examples in this regard are given ahead :

(i) Some seals depict ritual scenes. Efforts have been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals.

(ii) Some other seals depicting pictures of plants indicate towards worship of nature. But some animals made on seals—like animal with a horn seems imaginary and composite creatures.

(iii) In some seals, a figure shown seated cross¬legged in a yogic posture, sometimes, surrounded by animals. It has been regarded as a depiction of‘Proto- Shiva’, who is one of the major deities of Hinduism.

(iv) Except this, conical stone objects have been classified as ‘Lingas’.
Many reconstructions of Harappan Civilisation regarding religion have been made on the assumption that similarities exist in the earlier and later religious traditions. It is so because archaeologists generally move from known to unknown means and from present to past. This policy could be plausible in case of stone querns but not in case of religious beliefs.

We can take example of seals of Proto-Shiva. There is a mention of a diety, called ‘Rudra’ in the most ancient religious text ‘Rig Veda’ (C. 1500—1500 B.C.E.). Later on, this name was used for ‘Shiva’ in the later Puranic traditions. But on contrary to ‘Shiva’, Rudra is not mentioned as a Pashupati and a Yogi in Rig Veda. In other words, this depiction hardly matches the mention of Rudra in Rig Veda.

Question 9.
Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan society.
Answer:
Cities and settlements of Harappan civilisation were planned. Many craft production centres were there for whom raw material was brought from far off places. Agricultural settlements were also developing. All these functions could have been performed by any ruling class because general masses could not take important collective decisions. Yet, some scholars deny the existence of any ruling class in Harappan civilisation but it hardly seems real. In short, the following functions could have been performed by rulers in the Harappan society.

(i) Urban Planning : Urban planning of Harappan civilisation was of top quality. Cities were developed according to a proper plan. Streets and roads were wide enough and all roads bisected each other at right angles. People lived in houses of baked bricks. Length, breadth and height of bricks were of a standardised ratio. Ruler class lived in citadel of towns and general masses lived in lower towns. There were provisions of windows and doors in houses. Every house had a courtyard, bathroom, kitchen and stairs to reach a second storey or the roof. There were two storey or triple storied houses. People used to make large buildings.

One Great Bath has also been found at Mohenjodaro which could have been used for some kind of a special ritual bath. It was 11.88 metres in length, 7.01 metres in breadth and 2.43 metres in depth. Largest building of this town was the warehouse with the dimension of 45.71m x 15.23 m. Six warehouses have been found at Harappa. Harappan cities had the carefully planned drainage system. Drainage system was properly made which was covered with bricks. These bricks could have been removed at the time of cleaning. Domestic waste water had to flow into the street drains. Every house needed to have at least one wall along the street.

(ii) Different Crafts : Different types of crafts prevailed in Harappan culture which could have been regulated by the state. Tin and nickel were mixed by craftsmen to make copper. Copper was used to make statues, jars and different types of implements like axe, cutter, knife, etc. Evidences have been found about different crafts that prevailed in Harappan towns.

Existence of large buildings indicates towards the existence of house making in that age. They were experts in making seals and statues. Some people used to make jewellery of gold and silver. Harappan craftsmen were also experts in bead making. They were familiar with the art of weight making. Jars made by them were quite shiny.

(iii) Settlement near Sources of Raw Material: Some raw materials were locally available for craftsmen. That is why craft centres were developed by the state, near those areas where raw material was easily available. Raw materials included beads, shells, metals, etc.

(iv) Procuring Raw Material from Distant Places : Rulers used to send expeditions to far off places to procure raw material for craft production. For example, expeditions may have been sent to Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and South India (for gold).

(v) Contacts with Distant Lands : Rulers established contacts with distant lands. Mainly copper was brought through these contacts. Evidences have been found that copper was brought from Oman, on the South east tip of the Arabian Peninsula.

Map Work

Question 1.
On Map 1, use a pencil to circle sites where evidence of agriculture has been recovered. Mark an X against sites where there is evidence of craft production and R against sites where raw materials have been found.
Answer:

Source : R → Site where raw material was and establishment of settlements.
X → Site of craft production.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 9 Kings and Chronicles: The Mughal Courts Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-9/

Kings and Chronicles: The Mughal Courts NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 12

Kings and Chronicles: The Mughal Courts Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 12

Question 1.
Describe the process of manuscript production in the Mughal Court
Or
Describe the variety of tasks C involved in creation of manuscripts of during the reign of the Mughals. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Or
Describe briefly the various tasks involved in creating manuscripts during the Mughal Empire. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Answer:
All the Mughal books were manuscripts. In other words, they were hand-written. The centre where the work of manuscript production was taken was known as the imperial Kitabkhana. This Kitabkhana was like a library and a scriptorium. In other words, it was a place where the emperor kept his collection of manuscripts and produced new manuscripts. A large number of people were involved in the creation of manuscript. They included the following :

• Paper makers who prepared the folios of the manuscript.
• Scribes or calligraphers who copied the texts.
• Guilders who illuminated the pages of the manuscript.
• Painters who illustrated scenes from the text.
• Book binders who gathered the individual folios and set them within ornamental covers.

In the end, all these manuscripts were considered very precious and invaluable. They were a work of beauty and intellectual wealth.

Question 2.
In what ways would the daily routine and special activities associated with the Mughal court have conveyed a sense of the power of the emperor ?
Answer:
In the Mughal court, the king was always the centre of all attractions during the daily routine and special activities. Every activity or festivity exposed the power of the king. The following examples can be cited in this regard :

(i) Discipline in the Court: There were precise rules to determine the status amongst the Mughal elites. The elites having proximity to the king were accorded an important place in the court. There was a perfect discipline in the court. Once the emperor sat on the throne, no one was allowed to move from his seat. Besides no one could leave the court without his permission.

(ii) Forms of Address and Courtesies : All had to follow norms in the court. They had to follow the norms of address, courtesies and speech which were acceptable in court. Even a slightest deviation in etiquettes fetched punishment on the spot.

(iii) The Forms of Salutation : There were many forms of salutation in the court. They indicated the status of the person in the hierarchy. The deeper prostration represented higher status. The complete prostration or sijda meant the highest form of submission. However, under the reign of Shah Jahan, these rituals were replaced with Chahar Taslirn and Zaminbos, i.e., kissing the ground.

(iv) Jharoka Darshan : The Jharoka Darshan was introduced by Akbar. He wanted to-broaden the popular faith in the imperial authority. After performing his devotional prayers, he would go to a small balcony facing the east. The crowd of people comprising of soldiers, merchants, peasants, craft persons and women had the view of the emperor. It was called as the Jharoka Darshan.

Question 3.
Assess the role played by women of the imperial household in the Mughal Empire.
Or
Explain the role played by women of the imperial household in the Mughal Exmpire. (C.B.S.E. 2018)
Answer:
The domestic world of the Mughals was termed as the ‘harem’. The origin of the word ‘harem’ lay in the Persian language where it meant a sacred place. The Mughal household consisted of the following :

• Wives and concubines of the emperor.
• The near and distants relatives of the emperor such as mother, step-mothers, father-mothers, sisters, daughters, daughters-in-law, aunts and children.
• Slaves and female servants.

Two Kinds of Wives : The Mughal rulers had two kinds of wives such a Begums and Aghas. The Begums came from royal and aristocratic families. On the other hand, Aghas were those wives who were not noble by birth. The Begums enjoyed a higher status than the Aghas.

Control Over Financial Resources and Architectural Projects : The Mughal queens and princesses exercised a significant control over financial resources. Jahanara and Roshanara, the two daughters of Shah Jahan, earned an annual income equal to that of mansabdars. Jahanara also got revenues from the port city of Surat, a famous centre of overseas trade. They also designed many architectural projects. For example, Jahanara designed the bazaar of Chandni Chowk in Delhi. She also designed an imposing double storeyed caravan serai with a courtyard and a garden.

Contribution in Writing of History : Gulbadan Begum, the daughter of Babur, wrote a book entitled ‘Humayunama’. It gives a glimpse into the domestic world of the Mughals. Gulbadan Begum also wrote her memories of earlier times under Babur and Humayun. She described various conflicts and tensions that prevailed in the Mughal household.
Role of Elderly Women : They played the role of mediation. They resolved the conflicts that existed between Princes and the Kings.

Question 4.
What were the concerns that shaped Mughal policies and attitudes towards regions outside the sub continent ?
Or
Explain why Qandhar was a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Or
“Historians have provided accounts of diplomatic relationships and conflicts with the neighbouring political powerly of the Mughal Empire.” Elaborate. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (O.D.))
Or
How do you think that Qandhar remained a bone of contention between the Mughals and the Safavids. Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (O.D.))
Or
“Mughals maintained political and diplomatic relations with the states beyond their frontiers.” Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))’
Answer:
Following were the main concerns that shaped Mughal policies and attitudes towards regions outside the subcontinents:
(i) Control over posts of military importance : Political relations between the Mughal emperors and neighbouring countries of Iran and Turan were dependent upon control of the frontier designed by Hindukush mountains. All conquerors who wanted to conquer the Indian sub-continent had to cross Hindukush to have an access to north India. That is why there was a constant policy of Mughals and that was to ward off this potential danger by controlling strategic outposts, i.e., Kabul and Qandhar.

Qandhar was a bone of contention between Safavids (Iran) and the Mughals. This fort city was initially under the control of Humayun. Akbar reconquered it in 1595 C.E. Although Safavids maintained their diplomatic relations with the Mughals but they continued to stake claim over Qandhar. Jahangir, in 1613, sent a diplomatic envoy to the court of Irani ruler Abbas Shah. His objective was to plead the Mughal right over Qandhar but this envoy failed to meet its objective. Safavid army besieged Qandhar in 1622 C.E. The Mughal army was not fully prepared for this. As a result it was defeated and had to surrender fort and city to the Safavids.

(ii) Ottoman Empire : Pilgrimage and trade : The main objective of Mughal’s relations with the Ottoman empire was to maintain a free movement for pilgrims and merchants in the territories under control of the Ottoman empire. This was true especially for the Hijaz i.e., that area of Ottoman Arabia where Mecca and Madina, important pilgrim centres were located.

Mughal emperors generally combined commerce and religion. They used to export valuable things to Aden and Mokha, both ports of Red Sea. They even used to distribute the income from the sale of these goods in charity and keepers of Shrines. But when Aurangzeb came to know about the misappropriation of funds sent to Arabia then he stressed on their distribution in India because he believed that, “it was as much a house of God as Mecca”.

(iii) Jesuit Missionaries in the Mughal Courts: Europe came to know about India from the accounts of Jesuit missionaries, travellers, merchants, etc. Jesuit accounts are the earliest impression of the Mughal court recorded by Europeans. At the end of 15th century, Portuguese merchants established a network of trading centres in coastal cities. Portuguese emperor was also interested in the propagation of Christianity through Jesuit missionaries. Jesuit missions came to India in 16th century and were a part of process of trade and empire building.

Akbar wanted to know something about Christianity and therefore sent an embassy to Goa to invite Jesuit priests. First Jesuit mission reached the Mughal court of Fathepur Sikri in 1580. It remained there for two years. They held discussions with Akbar on Christianity and debated with Ulema’s about its virtues. Two other Jesuit missions were sent to Mughal Court in 1591 and 1595 C.E.

The Jesuit accounts are based on personal experiences. They shed light on mind and character of the emperor. Jesuit people were given place near to Akbar’s throne in public assemblies. They accompanied him on his campaigns and used to teach his children. They were generally his companions during leisure hours. Jesuit accounts corroborate the information given in Persian history about state officials and general masses.

Question 5.
Discuss the major features of Mughal provincial administration. How did the centre control the provinces ?
Or
Explain the chief characteristics of provincial administration of the .Mughal Empire. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (O.D.))
Answer:
The Mughal state had provinces which were called the Subas. These Subas were looked after by Diwan, Bakhshi and Sadar. The head of the provincial government was the Governor (Subedar) who reported directly to the emperor. Each Suba was divided into various sarkars. Then there were districts which were looked after by faujdars.

Then there was pargana, that is, subdistrict. It had three semi-hereditary officers such as the qanungo (keeper of the revenue records), the chaudhari (incharge of revenue collection) and the Qazi. Each department of administration had a large number of clerk’s, accountants, auditors and messengers. Besides there were technically qualified officers who functioned in accordance with fixed rules and procedures.

Question 6.
Discuss, with examples, the distinctive features of the Mughal chronicles.
Answer:
The Mughal chronicles were dynastic histories. They had the following features :
(i) Court Historians : The chronicles were written by the court historians on the request of Mughal rulers. They give an account of the achievements of the Mughal rulers and recorded all major events.

(ii) Chronological Record of Events : The chronicles present a continuous chronological record of important events. They are an indispensable source of information about the Mughal history. They explain the true intentions of the Mughal emperors behind many of their decisions.

(iii) Pictorial Images : The chronicles include many images which describe an event in the visual form. The pictures give a visual expression to many events. They expressed what was otherwise difficult to be conveyed through the written medium.

(iv) Similarity between Court and History of the Emperor: The chronicles written during the reign of Akbar, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb were titled as Akbarnama, Badshahnama and Alamgirnama respectively. They indicate that in the eyes of the authors, the history of the emperor was synonymous to the history of the empire or royal court.

(v) Language : Most of the Mughal court chronicles were written in Persian. Akbarnama, the official Mughal history, was written in Persian. In the same way, the memories of Babur were translated from the Turkish into the Persian and was known as Baburnama.

(vi) Important sources of Mughal History :
The chronicles give the historians a glimpse into the Mughal history. They recorded all the important historical events during the reign of various Mughal rulers. They were a repository of factual information about the institutions of the Mughal Empire.

Question 7.
To what extent do you think the visual material presented in this chapter corresponds with Abul Fazl’s description of the taswir (Source 1) ?
Answer:
Visual material presented in this chapter are coloured paintings. Few buildings like Buland Darwaza are shown. This visual material corresponds quite a lot with Abul Fazl’s description of the taswir.

• This picture is the proper presentation of the things shown in the picture.
• These express great interest of the Mughal rulers for paintings and architecture. They made every possible effort to encourage this art and even established royal art room for this purpose.
• After looking at the given pictures we can say that most proficient artists were available in that age. Their creations could be kept in front of great creations of European artists who achieved popularity in whole of the world.
• Abul Fazl described painting as a magical art and these pictures look like that they had the power to make inanimate objects look as if they possessed life.

Question 8.
What were the distinctive features of the Mughal nobility ? How was their relationship with the emperor shaped ? Why has Mughal nobility been considered as an important pillar of the Mughal state ? Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (O.D.))
Answer:
According to the Mughal chronicles, more particularly the Akbarnama, the power to rule and govern solely rested with the emperor. All the people of the kingdom followed the orders of the king. However there were a lot of officers in the Mughal state. They were the pillars of the kingdom. The historians have collectively referred to them as the nobility.

Functions of Nobility : The nobility consisted of diverse ethnic and religious groups. They did not allow any one or any faction to challenge the authority of the State. They were like a bouquet of flowers held together by loyalty to the emperor. There were many Turani and Iranian nobles in the imperial service of Akbar. They performed the following functions :

• They participated in military campaigns with their armies.
• They served as officers of the empire in the provinces.
• Each military commander recruited, equipped and trained the cavalry of the Mughal army.
• The troopers maintained superior horses.

Recruitment: The nobility rendered the imperial service. In this way, it acquired not only power but also wealth and the highest possible reputation. If a person wished to join this service, he petitioned through a noble. The noble presented a proposal (tajwiz) to the emperor in this regard. If the candidate was found suitable, he was granted a mansab. The Mir Bakshi (paymaster general) stood by the right side of the emperor in an open court. He presented appointment or promotion to all the candidates.

Advisory Body of Important Ministers : In the Mughal Court, two ministers were very important. The first was the Diwan-i-Ala (finance minister). The second was the Sadr-us-Sudur (minister of grants or Madad-i-maash). He was also the incharge of appointing local judges or qazis.

These three ministers never sat together as an advisory body. The Mir Bakshi, the Diwan-i-Ala and Sadr-us-Sudur were independent of each other. However they advised Akbar in all the fiscal and monetary matters and helped him in shaping his administrative institutions.

Reserve Nobles : A few nobles remained stationed at the court. They were called Tainat-i-rakab. They served as a reserve force to be sent to a province or military campaign. They were duty bound to appear before the emperor twice a day daily. Both in the morning and evening, they had to express submission and loyalty to the emperor in the public audience hall. ‘They guarded the emperor and his house-hold round the clock.

Relationship with the Emperor: The nobility was very loyal to the emperor. It was also very obedient and submissive. It served as officers of the empire. The emperor personally reviewed changes in their rank, titles and official postings. Akbar himself designed the mansab system. He also established spiritual relationships with a selected band of his nobility. He treated them as if they were his disciples {murid).

Question 9.
Identify the elements that went into the making of the Mughal ideal of Kingship,
Answer:
There were many elements that led to the formation of the Mughal period as an ideal of Kingship.
(i) King as Symbol of the Divine Power: According to many chronicles, the Mughal rulers derived their power directly from God. They were on the top of the list of those who received the light emanating from God (farr-i-izadi). The transmission of the Divine Light to the king made them the source of spiritual guidance for their subjects.

(ii) Sulh-i-Kul : The source of a Unifying Force: The Mughal Empire comprised of many religious communities such as the Hindus, the Jainas, the Zoroastrians and the Muslims. However the Mughal kings stood above all religious and ethnic groups. They mediated between people belonging to the different religious communities to ensure peace, stability and justice.

According to Abul Fazl, the ideal of Sulh-i-Kul was the corner stone of enlightened rule and absolute peace. Nobody was permitted to undermine the authority of the State. Similarly, all were exhorted not to fight with each other. In fact, the Mughal rulers instructed all their officers to follow the ideal of Sulh-i-Kul in administration.

(iii) Just Sovereignty as Social Contract: Abul Fazl defined sovereignty as a social contract. In other words, the emperor protected the following four essences of his subjects :

• Life (Jan)
• Property (Mai)
• Honour (Namus)
• Faith (Din)

In lieu of this protection, people expressed their obedience and submission to the kings. They also contributed their share of resources. As the sovereigns were just, they honoured the contract with power and Divine Guidance. That is why, many symbols were used by the artists. There was a popular motif of the lion and the lamb. Both lived peacefully in the company of each other. It signified that the Mughal reign was a realm of peace and justice where both the strong and the weak could exist in harmony.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 7 An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-7/

An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 7

An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 7

Question 1.
What have been the methods used to study the ruins of Hampi over the last two centuries? In what ways do you think they would have complemented the information provided by the priests of the Virupaksha Temple?
Or
Describe the various efforts made by scholars to reconstruct the history of the city and the empire from the ruins of Hampi upto the 20th century. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Or
How and when were the ruins of Hampi brought to light ? Explain briefly.
Answer:
An engineer and antiquarian Colonel Colin Mackenzie brought the ruins of Hampi to light in 1800 C.E. He was an employee in the East India Company. He prepared the first survey map of this site. His initial informations were based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and shrine of Pampadevi. From 1856 C.E.

onwards, photographers started to record the pictures of monuments of this site which helped the scholars to study them. Dozens of inscriptions were collected from here and other temples of Hampi. Historians collected information from these sources, accounts of foreign travellers and other literature written in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit language so that history of the city could be reconstructed. These functions complemented the information given by priests of the Virupaksha temple.

Question 2.
How were the water requirements of Vijayanagara met ?
Or
Explain how the people of Vijayanagara obtained water for their needs. (C.B.S.E. 2009)
Or
Why were the water resources of the Vijayanagara Empire developed ? Give reasons. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (O.D.))
Answer:
The need of water in Vijayanagara was fulfilled from the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flowed in the north-eastern direction. This river was surrounded by stunning granite hills which formed a girdle around the city. These hills were also the source of a large number of streams which flowed down to the river Tungabhadra.

So, the rulers of Vijayanagara got built large embankments to store water. They also constructed reservoirs of varying sizes and made arrangements to store the rain water as this was the most arid zone of the peninsula. A very large tank was built in the fifteenth century which is now called as the Kamalapuram tank. The water of this tank served the following purposes :

• It irrigated the nearby fields.
• It fulfilled the needs of the royal centre.

Besides, the ruins of the Hiriya canal have also been found. This canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra river. It irrigated the cultivated valley.

Question 3.
What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city ?
Answer:
A great fortification of Vijayanagara was accomplished in the fifteenth century. It also encircled the agricultural heartland and forests. This encirclement had the following advantages :

• It enclosed agricultural tracts, cultivated fields, gardens and forests.
• It had an elaborate canal system which drew water from the Tungabhadra.
• In the medieval period, sieges were laid to starve the defending armies into submission. These sieges lasted for many months or many years. So the rulers of Vijayanagara adopted an elaborate strategy to protect the agricultural belt and build large granaries.
• This encirclement also saved crops from animals.

Drawbacks :

• This system was very expensive.
• It was inconvenient for farmers during adverse circumstances.

Question 4.
What do you think, was the significance of the rituals associated with Mahanavami Dibba ?
Or
“Domingo Paes has called the Mahanavami Dibba of Vijayanagara Empire as ‘The House of Victory.” Justify. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (D))
Or
“The Mahanavami Dibba in the Royal centre of Vijayanagara has been assigned name on the basis of its form of building as will as function.” Elaborate. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (D))
Or
Highlight the aspects observed by the Domingo Paes on the Mahanavmi Dibba of the Vijaynagara Empire. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Or
Identify the rituals and practices associated with the Mahanavami Dibba, a structure in the Royal centre of Vijayanagara Empire.
(C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Or
“Mahanavami Dibba of Vijayanagara was the centre.of elaborate rituals”. Explain the statement with suitable examples. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (D))
Answer:
The Mahanavami Dibba was the king’s palace in Vijayanagara though there is no definite evidence. It had a distinctive structure. It had the largest enclosures and an impressive platform called as ‘the audience hall’. It was surrounded by high double walls with a street running between them.

There were many rituals associated with the Mahanavami Dibba. Literally, Mahanavami meant the great ninth day of the ten-day Hindu festival during the autumn months of September and October. This period had Dussehra in the northern India, Durga Pooja in Bengal and Navaratri or Mahanavami in peninsular India. The rulers of Vijayanagara displayed their power and prestige on this occasion.

The ceremonies performed on this occasion included :

(i) Worship of the image
(ii) Worship of the State horse
(iii) The sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals.
(iv) The main attractions of this occasion were:

• Dances
• Wrestling matches
• Processions of caparisoned horses, elephants, chariots and soldiers.

All these ceremonies had deep symbolic meanings. Most of them were presented before the king and his guests. On the last day of the festival, the king inspected his army as well as the armies of the nayaks. He also accepted rich gifts from the nayaks. There was a grand ceremony in an open field.

Question 5.
Given picture is an illustration of another pillar from the Virupaksha temple. Do you notice any floral motifs ? What are the animals shown ? Why do you think they are depicted ? Describe the human figures shown.
Answer:
Given illustration of the pillar from the Virupaksha temple has pictures of plants bearing flowers and different animals- birds. Animals-birds include peacock, horse, duck, etc. These pictures were probably carved on gateways to attract people. These pictures also express devotion, religiousness and love for art of patronage ruler.

Except this, different animals and birds were associated with different gods and goddesses. That is why they were also worshipped.
Human pictures include both deities and their worshippers. The God is shown bearing malas and crown. He also has a gadda in his hands. Probably he was a destroyer of Rakshashas. In another picture, one devotee is shown near to a ‘Shivlinga’. This method of worship is also strange which is not applicable in any form.

Question 6.
Discuss whether the term ‘royal centre’ is an appropriate description for the part of the city for which it is used.
Or
Explain the importance of the Royal Centre in Vijayanagara with a special focus on its important structures. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
or
Explain the role of Royal Centre played in the social and political life of Vijayanagara.
Or
Why was the south-western part of Vijayanagara settlement designated as Royal Centre ? Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Answer:
The Royal Centre existed in the south western part of the Vijayanagara. It had more than sixty temples. Through these temples, the rulers of Vijayanagara tried to establish, strengthen and legitimise their authority. They associated themselves with the divinities housed in the shrines. This Royal Centre had about thirty palaces. Many buildings had large and distinctive structures. These super structures were made of perishable materials. Many of these buildings were not associated with ritual functions.

The main complexes of the royal centre were as follows :
The Kings’s Palace : It is the largest complex of the royal centre. There is no definite evidence to show that it was a royal residence. It had two very impressive platforms. They were called as the Audience Hall and the Mahanavami Dibba. The kings’s palace was surrounded by high double walls with a street running between the two walls.

(a) The Audience Hall : It was a high platform having wooden pillars at close and regular intervals. It had a staircase which went upto the second floor. This staircase rested on the pillars. However it is not clear for what purpose was the hall used.

(b) The Mahanavami Dibba : It was a massive platform having a base of about 11000 sq. ft. It has a height of forty feet. It supported a wooden structure. The base of the platform was covered with relief carvings.

Rituals associated with this structure were probably coincided with Mahanavami known variously as Dusshera in northern India, Durga Pooja in Bengal and Navaratri in peninsular India. The rulers of Vijayanagara displayed their power, prestige and sovereignty on this occasion.

Main ceremonies associated with this occasion worshipped the image, worship of State horse, sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals, etc. Main attractions of this occasion were

• Dances
• Wrestling matches
• Procession of caparisoned horses, elephants and chariots and soldiers
• Ritual presentation by nayaks and the subordinate kings before the king and his guests to mark the occasion.

These ceremonies had great symbolic meaning. King used to inspect his army and armies of the nayaks in a grand ceremony in an open field on last day of the festival. Nayaks, on this occasion, used to bring gifts and stipulated tribute for the king.

Question 7.
What does the architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables tell us about the rulers who commissioned them?
Or
“Vijayanagara was characterised by a distinctive building style” Support this statement with the sacred “architectural examples of Vijayanagara. (C.B.S.E 2014 (O.D.))
Answer:
Lotus Mahal was one of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre. It was given this name by the British travellers in the 19th century. Historians are not quite sure that for which function this building was built. But the map drawn by Mackenzie suggests that it may have been a council chamber where the king used to meet his advisers.

There was an elephant stable near the Lotus Mahal in which a number of rooms were lined. The king used to keep large number of elephants over here. Architecture style of Lotus Mahal and nearby stable remind us about Indo-Islamic style. Rulers of Vijayanagara Kingdom used to built such elaborate buildings and spend a lot of money on them. They were of the view that beauty of these palaces will increase their prestige among masses.

Question 8.
What are the architectural traditions that inspired the architects of Vijayanagara ? How did they transform these traditions ?
Answer:
The rulers of Vijayanagara made many innovations in the architectural traditions. They added many new features in the temple architecture. These large structures were a show of their imperial authority. For example, they built gopuram and royal gateways. The towers of the central shrines signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance. But  the royal gateway surpassed them in height. They reminded the power of the kings and showed that the kings had full command over the resources, techniques
and skills.

The rulers of Vijayanagara also got built Mandapas as pavilions. Besides there were long and pillared corridors that ran around the shrines. There were two main temples . The Virupaksha Temple and the Vitthala Temple. The Virupaksha Temple was built over the centuries. It was constructed in the 9th-10th centuries. But after the establishment of Vijayanagara Empire, it was substantially enlarged. Krishna Deva Raya built a hall in front of the main shrine which marked his accession to the throne. It was decorated with delicately carved pillars.

Many temple complexes had chariot streets. These streets extended from the temple gopuram in a straight line. They were paved with slabs of stone. They were lined with pillared pavilions. The merchants set up their shops in these pavilions. In other words, the rulers of Vijayanagara built impressive buildings.

Question 9.
What impression of the lives of the ordinary people of Vijayanagara can you call from the various descriptions in the chapter ?
Answer:
The meaning of ordinary people is by those people who did not participate in power structure. Rich merchants were also included among them. Following were the main features of their lives:
(i) Archaeologists have found some fine Chinese porcelain in certain areas. They are of the view that rich traders probably lived over here. This was also the Muslim residential quarter. Tombs and mosques located over here are distinctive features of art, but still their architecture style resembles with that of the architecture of mandapas found in the temples of Hampi.

(ii) Portuguese traveller Barbosa of 16th century describes the houses of ordinary people like this, “the other houses of the people are thatched, but nonetheless well built and arranged according to the occupations, in long streets with many open places.”

(iii) Field surveys suggest that there were many shrines and small temples in the entire area which belonged to vivid cults. They probably were supported by different communities. Surveys also indicate that wells, rainwater tanks and temple tanks were probably the main sources of water for ordinary town people.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 8 Peasants, Zamindars and the State: Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-8/

Peasants, Zamindars and the State: Agrarian Society and the Mughal EmpireNCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 8

Peasants, Zamindars and the State: Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 8

Question 1.
What are the problems in using the Ain as a source for reconstructing agrarian history ? How do historians deal with this situation ?
Answer:
Ain-i-Akbari was written by Abul Fazl in 1598 C.E. He had revised it five times to avoid any kind of errors. He collected and compiled all his information with an extra caution. He verified and cross-checked all the oral testimonies before their inclusion in his book. In fact, he wanted to minimise the chances of transcriptional errors. However, many historians have found some problems in this book. First of all, they have found out many errors in totalling.

Secondly, the quantitative data has not been uniformly collected from all the provinces. For example, Abul Fazl has not given the caste composition of Zamindars in Bengal and Orissa. Thirdly, he had not given any vital parameters in the determination of prices and wages. He based his assessment on the data that he got from Agra.

To get rid of these drawbacks, the historians use all documents that they found in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra in the 17th and 18th centuries. They have also come across many documents of East India Company which throw a light on the agriculture of Mughal times.

Question 2.
To what extent is it possible to characterise agricultural production in the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries as subsistence agriculture ? Give reasons for your answer.
Or
How were the subsistence and commercial production closely inter¬twined in an average peasant’s holding during the Mughal period in 16th and 17th centuries ? Explain. (C.B.S.E 2014 (O.D))
Answer:
During the Mughal period, the primary purpose of agriculture was to feed the people. So most of the peasants grew basic staples such as rice, wheat or millets. They heavily depended on Monsoon which was intrinsically the backbone of the Indian agriculture. Additional water was required to irrigate the fields and therefore artificial systems of irrigation were developed.

In the northern India, the state undertook the digging of new canals (nahar or nala) and the repair of old canals like Shah-nahr in Punjab. Besides, the farmers used those technologies which harnessed animal power.

The agriculture moved around two major seasonal cycles. The Kharif was sown in the autumn season. The Rabi was sown in the spring season. All the farmers produced a minimum of two crops in a year. A few others even grew three crops. Thus, agriculture was not only for subsistence but also to earn profit or more money.

The use of term Jins-i-Kamil meant perfect crops. Most of the peasants grew cash crops which brought in more revenue. They considered cotton and sugarcane an excellent crops to earn profit. Thus, subsistence and commercial production were closely linked to an average peasant.

Question 3.
Describe the role played by women in agricultural production.
Or
How were women considered an important resource in agrarian society ? (C.B.S.E. 2012 (O.D.))
Or
Examine the role of women as an important resource in agrarian society in the 16th-17th centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (Comp.))
Or
Describe briefly the role of women in agrarian society during 16th and ,17th centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2012 (O.D.))
Answer:
During the Mughal period, women worked shoulder to shoulder with men in the fields. Men tilled and ploughed the fields whereas women sowed, weeded, threshed and winnowed the harvest. In other words, there was no gender-based segregation in the Mughal society. Both worked hard to enhance the agricultural production.

The women belonging to the landed gentry enjoyed the right to inherit property. Many examples have been cited by the historians from Punjab to show that women actively participated in the rural land market. They sold the property which they had inherited. A few women also performed artisanal tasks. They spun yarn and sifted and kneaded clay for pottery. Besides, they did the embroidery work.

Question 4.
Discuss, with examples, the significance of monetary transactions during the period under consideration.
Answer:
(i) During the Mughal period, India witnessed a growth in trade via sea. It led to the start of an export of various goods. Due to this export, there was a rapid inflow of silver in the market in Asia. Much part of this silver also reached India. It was a good thing for India as it lacked natural resources of silver. As a result, there was an economic stability due to silver currency.

There was an unparalleled expansion in the minting of coins and monetary transactions. Besides, the Mughals found it easy to collect the revenue in cash. Jovanni Karari, an Italian traveller, passed through India in 1690 C.E. He has clearly written how silver reached India from all parts of the world. From his description, we also come to know how there was an exchange of cash and goods in India in the 17th century.

(ii) The mutual exchange in villages was also in cash. As the villages had set up links in the urban markets, there was a considerable increase in monetary business. In this way, villages became an important part of the monetary market.

(iii) Due to the monetary transactions, it was easy to pay daily wages to labourers in cash.

Question 5.
Examine the evidence that suggest that land revenue was important for the Mughal fiscal system.
Or
Examine vivid aspects of the Land revenue system of the Mughal empire. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (Comp.))
Answer:
Land revenue was the main source of income during the Mughal period. Therefore the State considered it vital to create an administrative apparatus to ensure control over agricultural production. This arrangement was fixed to collected revenue in the whole country. There was an office (daftar) of the Diwan who supervised the fiscal system of the Mughal Empire.

The collection of revenue had two important stages. First of all, the revenue was assessed. Secondly, it was collected. The first stage was called as the Jama and the second stage was referred to as the Hasil. According to a decree of Akbar, it was the duty of revenue collector (amil-guzar) to make cultivators pay in cash. However, the option of making payment in kind was also kept open. Thus, monetary transactions during the Mughal period were quite significant.

Question 6.
To what extent do you think caste was a factor in influencing social and economic relations in agrarian society ?
Or
Describe caste and rural milieu of Mughal India. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Answer:
Caste has greatly influenced social and economic relations of the people in an agrarian society. Because of caste-based inequalities or distinctions, we find many heterogeneous groups in the society. Many of those who tilled the land, worked as menials or agricultural labourers (majurs). As they did menial jobs in society, they were relegated to poverty. They had the lowest position in the caste hierarchy as they lacked resources.

Such caste-based distinctions and inequalities were also found in the Muslim communities where people did scavenging. They lived outside the boundaries of the village. Thus, there was a direct co-relation between caste, poverty and social status at the lower level. But at the intermediate level, these co-relations were not so marked.

In the 17th century, Marwar Rajputs were considered as important as the Jats, though these Jats had a lower status in the caste hierarchy. On the other hand, the Gauravas, who cultivated land near Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh, sought Rajput status in the 17th century. Similarly Ahirs, Gujjars and Malis rose in the caste hierarchy because they earned huge profits. In the end, we can say that caste is a great determining factor in both social and economic relations.

Question 7.
How were the lives of forest dwellers transformed in the sixteenth ; and seventeenth centuries ?
Or
Who were the forest dwellers ? Explain how their lives changed in the 16th and 17th centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Or
Describe the life of forest dwellers in the Mughal Era. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (O.D.))
Or
Examine how were the lives of forest dwellers transformed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Answer:
Forest dwellers were often termed as Jangli in the Mughal period. But it did not mean that they had no civilisation. Rather, it means that the forest- dwellers were those people who earned their livelihood from the produce of forests. They were also engaged in hunting and shifting cultivation. They mostly performed specific seasonal activities. For example, the Bhils collected the forest produce in spring. They went on fishing in summer, they cultivated their land in the months of monsoon and went for hunting in autumn and winter. So they exercised a perpetual mobility.

Capturing and supply of elephants : Many forest-dwellers captured elephants. They supplied these elephants to the royal army. So the peshkash levied from the forest people often included a supply of elephants.

The spread of commercial agriculture : Many forest dwellers made use of the spread of commercial agriculture. They exported honey, gum and wax to other countries in the seventeenth century.

Overland trade : Many tribesmen like the Lohanis of Punjab were engaged in an overland trade between India and Afghanistan. So most of them had become Zamindars. A few of them had even become kings.

Military service : Many tribesmen rendered military services to the king. They also demanded when they became the kings, that their fraternity should provide military service. For example, the Ahom kings had people who provided them military service in exchange for land.

Question 8.
Examine the role played by Zamindars in the Mughal India. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Or
Explain the role of Zamindars in Mughal India during 16th-17th centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (O.D.))
Or
Explain why the Zamindars were central to the agrarian relations in the Mughal period. (C.B.S.E. Sample Paper 2011)
Or
Explain the origin, consolidation and the role of zamindars in the villages. ‘ Were they an exploitative class ? (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Or
Analyse the role of zamindars during the Mughal period. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Or
Explain the role played by ‘.zamindars during 16th and 17th ‘centuries in India. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (D))
Answer:
The Zamindars were that class of the people who did not directly participate in the processes of agricultural production. They enjoyed an elevated status in the society.
(i) The Zamindars were the proprietors of their land. They considered their land as their property (milkiyat). They could sell, give and mortgage it. They enjoyed many social and economic privileges because of their superior status in the society.

(ii) The Zamindars belonged to the upper caste. It added to their exalted status in society.

(iii) The Zamindars rendered certain services (Khidmat) for the state for which they got respect and position in the state.

(iv) The Zamindars became very powerful because they collected revenue on behalf of the state. They also got financial compensation for this work.

(v) Another source for the power of Zamindars in society was their control over the military resources. They kept a fortress as well as an armed unit comprising of cavalry, artillery and infantry.

(vi) The Zamindars played an important role in inhabiting and developing the agricultural land. They helped in the settlements of farmers by lending them money and agricultural instruments. Because of the sale and purchase of land by the Zamindars, the market became quite brisk. Besides the Zamindars used to sell the crops grown on their land. There are evidences that the Zamindars held bazaars where even the farmers came to sell their crops.

(vii) If we observe social relations of villages of the Mughal age as a pyramid, then Zamindars were at the top, i.e., their place was the highest.

(viii) There is no doubt in the fact that the Zamindars belonged to an exploitative class. But their relations with the farmers depended on their mutual togetherness and hereditary patronge. That is why Zamindars often got support of peasants in case of their revolt against the state.

Question 9.
Discuss the ways in which Panchayat and village headman regulated the rural society.
Or
Explain the ways through which Mughal village Panchayats and village headmen regulated rural society. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Or
Explain the role of Panchayats in the Mughal rural Indian society during 16th – 17th centuries.(C.B.S.E. 2014 (D))
Or
Examine the role of Panchayat as the main constituent of the Mughal village community. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (D))
Or
Assess the role played by Panchayats in the villages during ’ l Mughal Period. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (O.D.))
Or
“The village Panchayat during the Mughal period regulated rural society.” .Explain the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Answer:
The village Panchayat was an assembly of elders or important people of the village. In villages, where people of many castes lived, the Panchayat was usually a heterogeneous body. It represented all the castes and communities. Its decisions were binding on all its members.

Role of the Headman : The Panchayat was headed by a muqaddam or mandal. He was usually called the headman and was often chosen with consensus of the village elders. He remained in the office till he enjoyed the confidence of the elders of the village. He supervised the village accounts and was assisted by a patwari or an accountant. He also coordinated activity to tide over natural calamities like floods and tried to prevent caste-based offences.

Functions of Panchayats : The main function of the Panchayat was to ensure that all communities lived within caste boundaries. Secondly, it had the authority to levy fines. Thirdly, it could also give more serious

punishments like expulsion from the community. It acted as a deterrent to violation of caste norms.
Jati Panchayats : The Jati Panchayats had a considerable influence in rural society. In Rajasthan, the Jati Panchayats resolved civil disputes between members of different castes. They also mediated in disputed cases of land.

They also decided if the marriage were solemnised in accordance with the norms of particular castes. The decisions of the Jati Panchayats were even respected by the state.Archival records of western India, especially Rajasthan and Maharashtra, include few petitions presented to Panchayat complaining about collecting taxes forcefully or the demand of hegar, i.e., unpaid labour.

These petitions were generally submitted by most weaker sections of rural communities. These petitions were made collectively by a community or caste group against the morally illegitimate demands of elite groups. One of these demands was excessive taxes. They considered right of minimum basic means of life as their traditional rights. They wanted that Gram Panchayat should listen to this and must ensure that state must give them justice.

In case of demand of excessive taxes, different classes were advised by Panchayat to come to a compromise. When reconciliation was not possible, peasants took more drastic forms of resistance like deserting the village. As uncultivated land was easily available and there was competition over labour resources, it was an effective weapon in the hands of cultivators.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-4/

Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 4

Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 4

Question 1.
Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and materialists ? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer:
Yes, the philosophers of the Upanishads had different perception than that of the fatalists and the materialists. The main points of difference are as follows :

(i) The Views of the Fatalists and the Materialists. The fatalists believed that no one can escape the fruits of one’s Karma. No one can change pleasure or pain in the course of life. They can neither be lessened nor increased. The wise people thought that they can get rid of their Karmas through their noble qualities and meditation. But it is not possible. All men have to face both pleasure and pain. Similarly the materialists do not believe in alms, sacrifice or offerings.

They believe that there is no such thing as this world or the next. A human being is-made up of four elements. When he dies, the earthy part in him returns to the dust. The fluid in him goes to the water. His heat goes to the fire and the windy part in him merges in the air. All his senses pass into space. In other words, nothing remains after death. So the talk of gifts is a doctrine of fools. It is an empty lie.

(ii) The Philosophical Views in the Upanishads. The above mentioned views have no place for soul or God. So according to the Upanishads, the aim of human life is the meeting of the soul with God.

Question 2.
Summarise the central teachings of Jainism. Explain the basic idea of Jain Philosophy. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Or
Describe the message of Lord Mahavira on life and Karma. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Or
“The principle of ahimsa and renunciation emphasised by Jainism has left its mark.” Support the statement with Lord Mahaviira’s I messages. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Answer:
The important teachings of Jainism are as follows :
(i) The entire world is animated. It is believed that even the stones, rocks and water have life.

(ii) No living being should be given any injury. The basic philosophy of Jainism is not to harm or cause injury to human-beings, animals, plants and insects. There is a great emphasis on the principle of ahimsa.

(iii) The cycle of birth and re-birth is shaped through Karma. If one is to escape this cycle of Karma, one must practise asceticism and penance. It is possible if one renounces the world. So one has to live in a monastry to attain salvation.

(iv) Jain monks and nuns used to take five vows such as :

• Not to kill anyone
• Not to steal anything
• Not to tell a lie
• Not to possess property
• To observe celibacy.

Question 3.
Discuss the role of the Begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupas at Sanchi.
Or
“The Begums of Bhopal played a significant role in preserving the remains of Stupa at Sanchi.” Support this statement with a suitable evidence.
Answer:
The contribution of Shahjahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum was praise worthy in the preservation of the stupas at Sanchi. Their contribution can be described as follows:

• They donated money for the up-keep of the Stupas at Sanchi.
• Sultan Jehan Begum contributed a lot of money for the erection of a museum and a Guest House.
• John Marshall lived in that guest house and wrote many books. He dedicated his important books on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan Begum. Thus, the stupas survived due to the wise decisions of the Begums of Bhopal.

Question 4.
Read the short inscription and answer the questions that follow :
In the year 33 of the Maharaja Huvishka (a Kushana ruler), in the first month of the hot season on the eight day, a Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvanaka by the Bhikkhuni Dhanavati, the sister’s daughter of the Bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the Bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka, together with her father and mother.
(a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription ?
(b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta?
(c) Who were the relatives she mentioned ?
(d) What Buddhist text did she know ?
(e) From whom did she learn the text ?
Answer:
(a) Dhanavati dated her inscription with the help of the Maharaja Huvishka, a Kushan ruler. This date was the eighth day of the first month of the hot season during the thirty third year of his rule.
(b) Dhanavati had deep faith in Buddhism which is why, she got the statue of Bodhisatta installed.
(c) She mentioned the name of her maternal aunt Buddhamita, her guru Bhikkhu Bala together with her parents.
(d) She knew the Buddhist texts like Tipitaka.

Question 5.
Why do you think women and men joined the Sangha ?
Answer:
The men and women probably went to the Sanghas due to the following reasons:
(i) They wanted to remain away from the worldly pleasures.

(ii) The life in the Sanghas was simple and disciplined.

(iii) They could deeply study the Buddhist philosophy by staying in the Sanghas.

(iv) Many people entered the Sanghas to become teachers of Dhamma. They went on to become theris or respected women who had attained liberation.

(v) All were considered equal in the Sanghas. There were kings, wealthy men and grihapatis. There were also the humble-folk like the workers, slaves and craftsmen. Nobody had an earlier social identity after becoming a bhikkhu or bhikkhuni.

(vi) The internal functioning of the Sangha was democratic. It emphasised consensus through discussions. If there was no consensus, decisions were taken on the basis of votes.

Question 6.
To what extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi ?
Or
“Buddhist literature needs to be studied to understand the scripture at Sanchi and other places.” Justify the statement with examples. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Answer:
Art historians had to acquire familarity with hagiographies of the Buddha to understand the sculptures of Buddha. Hagiographies describe that the Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating sitting under a tree. Many early sculptors tried to show Buddha’s presence through symbols instead of showing him in human form. For example, the empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha and Stupa became symbol of mahaparinibbana.

Symbol of wheel was also used quite frequently. Wheel stood for the first sermon of the Buddha delivered at Sarnath. Actually, such sculptures literally are very difficult to understand. For example, the tree does not stand for a tree alone, but it was a symbol of an event in the life of the Buddha. In order to understarid such symbols, historians need to understand the traditions of those who produced these works of art.

Popular Traditions: Probably many sculptures of Sanchi were not associated with Buddhism. They include few sculptures of beautiful women. Those women were shown swinging from the edge of the gateway and holding onto a tree. Initially, scholars were intrigued about importance of this sculpture because there hardly seem any relation of sculpture with renunciation. But after examining other literary traditions, they realised that this is a sulpture of Shalabhanjika described in Sanskrit language. According to popular belief, this Shalabhanjika was a woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruits.

This Shalabhanjika motif suggests that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre Buddhist and even non-Buddhist beliefs, practices and ideas. Some of the motifs used in sculptures of Sanchi were definitely originated from these traditions. For example, some of the beautiful depictions of animals were found here.

These animals include elephant, horses, monkeys and cattles. Probably these animals were depicted to attract the people. Also, animals were used as symbols of human attributes. For example, elephant was considered as a symbol of strength and wisdom.

Another motif of a women is shown surrounded by lotuses and elephants. Elephants are sprinkling water on her as if they are performing consecration. Few historians consider it as Maya, the mother of the Buddha and others indentify her as a popular goddess, Gajalakshmi. Gajalakshmi is the goddess of good fortune and is associated with elephants. It is quite possible that devotees who saw these sulptures identified the figure with both Maya and Gajalakshmi.

The serpent are found on several pillars. This motif is probably being taken from popular traditions which were not always recorded in texts. Interesting thing is that one modem historian James Ferguson has considered Sanchi as a centre of trees and serpent worship. Probably he was unfamiliar with Buddhist literature because most of them had not been translated during his time. They probably arrived at this conclusion by studying only the images on their own.

Question 7.
Picture Based Questions
Answer:
Do it yourself.

Question 8.
Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
Answer:
Vaishnavism was a form of Hinduism. It believed in the worship of Vishnu as the principal deity. Similary, Shaivism is a tradition of Hinduism in which Shiva is regarded as the chief God. In such worship, the emphasis was laid on Bhakti, that is, the bond between the devotee and the God was the one of love and devotion. Architecture. When the Stupas at Sanchi developed, the temples also came into existence.

These temples were built to house images of gods and goddesses. The early temple was a small square room known as the garbhagriha. It had a single door-way from which the worshipper entered to worship the idol. Slowly and steadily a tall structure was built on the garbhagriha. It was known as the Shikhara. The walls of these temples were decorated with sculpture. But the later temples had an elaborate structure. They had assembly halls, huge walls, big gateways and arrangements for the supply of water.

Most of these temples were carved out of huge rocks. The tradition of building artificial caves was quite old. In the 3rd century B.C.E., many such caves were built for those who renounced the world and for those who belonged to the Ajivika sect, on the orders of king Ashoka. This tradition continued developing. Its most developed form can be seen in the Kailashnatha Temple of the 3th century. It was carved out of the single piece of rock. A copper plate inscriptions showed the amazement of the chief sculptor when he completed the temple at Ellora. He expressed his wonder saying: “Oh, how did I make it!”

Sculpture. Many avataras have been shown as idols. Such idols have also been made of other gods. Shiva has been shown in the lingum form. But in many other images, Shiva has been shown in human form. All these images were based on the depiction of gods. Many sculptures of gods and goddesses were grotesque figures as they had multiple arms and hands. They also had a combination of human and animal forms.

Question 9.
Discuss how and why stupas were built.
Or
Describe the structure of Stupa with examples. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Or
Describe the structure of the Stupa and give any two examples of important stupas. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (O.D.))
Or
Trade out how Stupas were built. (C.B.S.E. 2018)
Or
Describe the magnificent features of the sculpture of Sanchi Stupa. (CJB.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))
Answer:
From the earliest times, people considered the Stupas as pious and sacred. These Stupas had special trees, unique rocks and awe-inspiring beauty. They also had small shrines attached to them. They were sometimes called as Chaityas.There are several Chaityas in the Buddhist literature. There is also the description of many places associated with the Buddha. For example, we find Lumbini where the Buddha was born, Bodh Gaya where Buddha attained enlightenment,

Sarnath where the Buddha delivered his first sermon and Kusinagar where Buddha attained nirvana. All these places came to be regarded as sacred by the Buddhists. About 200 years after the time of the Buddha, king Ashoka erected a pillar at Lumbini to mark the fact that the Buddha had visited this place.

(i) Why were Stupes Built ?
Answer:
The Stupas were the mounds where the bodily remains or objects used by the Buddha were buried. So all these Stupas were regarded as sacred. Though Stupas have been there even before the Buddha, yet, they are mainly associated with Buddhism. They are venerated as emblems of Buddhism as they contain the sacred relics of the Buddha. According to Ashokavadana, a Buddhist text, Ashoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to all important cities. He ordered the construction of Stupas over these relics. The important Stupas of Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath had been built by the second century B.C.E.

(ii) The Complex Structure of Stupas
Answer:
The Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap. It is a simple semi-circular mound of earth. Later on it was also called as anda. Slowly and steadily, its structure became complex because an attempt was made to balance the round and square shapes. Above the anda, it had the harmika, a balcony like structure. This balcony represented the abode of the gods.

Near the harmika, was a mast called the Yashti. It was often surmounted by a Chhatri or umbrella. Around the mound, there was a railing. It separated the sacred place from the secular world. The Stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut have stone railings. This railing was like a bamboo or wooden fence. It had four gateways. The worshippers mostly entered through the eastern gateway. They walked around the mound in a clockwise direction.

(iii) Money for the Construction of the Stupas
A lot of donation poured in for the construction and decoration of the Stupas. The kings like Satavahanas offered huge amounts. Similarly the guilds and the ivory workers financed part of one of the gateways at Sanchi. Besides hundreds of men and women also

donated for this purpose. They mentioned their names along with the place from where they had come. They also mentioned their occupations and names of their relatives. The Bikkhus and the Bhikkhunis also contributed a lot for the construction of these monuments.