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Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for 11 History Chapter 7 Changing Cultural Traditions  Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation.

Changing Cultural Traditions NCERT Solutions for Class 11 History Chapter 7

Changing Cultural Traditions  Questions and Answers Class 11 History Chapter 7

Question 1.
Which elements of Greek and Roman Cultural were revived in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries?
Answer:
These were—

• religion (humanism)
• classical architecture
• astronomy
• mathematics
• medicine
• chemistry
• sculpture.

Question 2.
Compare details of Italian architecture of this period with Islamic architecture.
Answer:
The remains excavated by archaeologists inspired a new style in architecture. It was actually a revival of the Imperial Roman Style. It is known as classical architecture. We see Italian architecture in the sixteenth century had copied many features of Imperical Roman Buildings.

There were persons with multi-skills in painting, sculpture and reliefs altogether like Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564). His painting in the Sistine Chapel “The Pie.ta” and dome design of St. ; Peter’s Church is worth seeing in Rome. Another was Filippo Brunelleschi (1337-1446).

He designed Duomo of Florence. In Islamic architecture, we had seen archie buildings with domes i.e. Mosque, Tomb, grave-yard etc. They were known to mosaic and animated paintings. The Roman influence in Islamic architecture can , be seen easily. Sarai, Madarsa and palaces were built during Islamic empires. We can see the buildings Constructed during Sultanate period in India and then it would become easy to understand the architecture of this period.

Question 3.
Why were Italian towns the first to experience the ideas of humanism?
Answer:
Location of Italy surrounded by ocean from three sides, bestowed her with longer coast line where ports had been built during the period in question. Thus, Italian towns got the benefits of. transmission of diversified culture prevalilirig in Byzantine empire (Eastern Europe), and Islamic countries through these ports. The trade with China via the silk route and with western European countries also provided opportunity to Italian nationals to observe the culture, architecture, society, standard of living mutely.

Independent city states were formed and ruled under the Common Wealth authority which has constituted Council. The period, in which Italy remained as mute observer of the development in Byzantine E empire, Western Europe and Islamic countries, gave stimulus to understand very first humanism in its real form.

It was a war of N renaissance which acted upon Italy very first because of being her on.The trade routes to western Europe, the Islamic countries and Eastern n as also Southern Asia. We see that the earliest universities were-up in Italian towns, eg. university of Padua and Bologna.

Law was here the popular subject of study. Frequent debate and discussions on law substantiated an idea that there was much to be learnt which religious teaching alone could not give. This idea or culture was labelled as humanism by the historians in the nineteenth century.

Question 4.
Compare the Venetian idea of good government with those in contemporary France.
Answer:

Question 5.
What was the features of humanist thought?
Answer:
Features of humanist thought

• There was much to be learnt which religious teaching alor could not give.
• Antiquity was a distinctive civilisation which could be best understood through the actual words of the ancient Greeks and RomAnswer: It rendered with classical culture.
• Latin word humanit as from which humanity was derived, had been used to mean a culture.
• Subjects like grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy fall under the study of humanities.
• Discussion and debates were necessary to develop skill in humanities.

Giovanno Pico Della Mirandola, a humanist writes in his On . The Dignity Of Man— “For (Plato and Aristotle), it was certain that, for the attainment of the knowledge of truth” they were always seeking for themselves,
nothing is better than to attend as often as possible the exercise of debate. For just as bodily energy is strengthened by gymnastic exercise,so beyond doubt in this wrestling place of letters, as it were, energy of mind becomes far stronger and more vigorous.

Question 6.
Write a careful account of how the world appeared different to seventeenth century EuropeAnswer:
Answer:
Changes in the world appeared to Europeans
(i) The thinkers like Galileo exhibited that knowledge is distinct than belief because observation and experiments are must to attain knowledge but Bible on conjucture, lights the road to heaven however, nothing it says how the heavens work. Likewise thoughts slackened the influence of Church on public life.

(ii) Humanism was considered subjective hence, classified in humanities i.e. subjects like grammer, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy. It was understood in the meaning of culture- unconnected to religion. Discussion and debates were understood, an instrument to grow the crop of skills.

In brief, scientific approach of observation, presumption, application, generalization thereby i conceptualisation i.e. precedent processes to arrive at conclusion with reconcilated replication; had begun to sprout, in the mental world of the masses. There were logic, argument, discretion and judgement in that changed world.

(iii) There were universities in the changed world as witnessed . by seventeenth century EuropeAnswer: Italy was the root of renaissance.

(iv) Public awareness towards reading ancient authors and understand through the actual words of ancient Creeks and Romans— was created.

(v) Education programmes were implemented launched giving stimulus to go beyond mere religious teaching and learning process specially read physiology, Chemistry, Biology, Physics etc. natural sciences.

Conclusion—The seventeenth Century Europeans witnessed. Three Order system of Feudal society under Church ruined, scientific approach promoted, humanism gradually took the place of religion, republics developed, several mysteries about earth, the sun and other planets got their manifestation. It was really a different world to seventeenth-century Europe.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for 11 History Chapter 5 Nomadic Empires Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation.

Nomadic Empires NCERT Solutions for Class 11 History Chapter 5

Nomadic Empires Questions and Answers Class 11 History Chapter 5

Question 1.
Why was trade so significant to the Mongols?
Answer:
The steppes of Central Asia had extreme climate and nomadic as, also hunter-gatherer tribes could only live there. Food grains was not grown there hence, only trade could help their survival. The scant resources of the steppe lands drove Mongols and other Central Asian nomads to trade and bartar with settled people in China.

Question 2.
Why did Genghis Khan feel the need to fragment the Mongol tribes into new social and military groupings?
Answer:
Reasons for fragmentation of Mongol tribes—
(i) There were a number of tribes divided into patrilineal lineages. There were some richer families but a majority
of them was poor. This caused conflicts between them, particularly, when game and stored provisions ran out or drought be fall in steppe.

(ii) The society was splited and exploited by the rulers of China because of no confederacy formed till then.

(iii) An organised military pressure could only make the raids successful and enhance their profit in the trade i.e. exchange of game, horses etc. for agricultural produce and iron utensils.

(iv) During to lack of unity, Genghis Khan (Temujin) himself had to suffer a lot during his youth. His blood-brother Jamuqa also had turned hostile to him.

The above bitter experiences during youth were formed motive that pressed Genghis Khan to fragment the Mongol tribes into new social and military groupings.

Question 3.
How do later Mongol reflections on the yasa bring out the uneasy relationship they had with the memory of Genghis Khan?
Answer:
This fact is revealed from the research of David Ayacon who has stated the “Yasa” was written as Yasaq when Genghis Khan promulgated it as the quilt of 1206.

It was then meant law, decree or order i.e. administrative regulations, the organisation of the hunt, the army and the postal system. However, his descendants in thirteenth century, started using the term “Yasa” purported to legal code of Genghis Khan.

Perhaps, they would have felt shame to confine his term only to tribal communities especially because, till then, they began to rule over very sophisticated urban societies with respective histories, cultures and laws. They wanted to claim their ancestor as big as Moses and Soloman who were great rulers and not merely a chieftain of a nomadic tribe.

The second proof on their uneasy relationship is apparent from record of Hafiz-a-Tanish, a chronicler to Abdullah Khan, one of distant descendants of Genghis Khan who states his visit at the festival ground in Bukhara where Genghis Khan had extorted hidden money from rich Muslim residents under a myth that they were sinners and would attain purgation only when said wealth is handed over to him. Hafiz-i-Tanish says that Abdulla had gone there to perform his holiday prayer.

Question 4.
If history relies upon written records produced by city- based literati, nomadic societies will always receive a hostile representation.” Would you agree with this statement? Does it explain the reason why Persian Chronicles produced such inflated figures of casualities resulting from Mongol campaigns?
Answer:
Yes, we are agree to this statement on the basis of following grounds
Reasons for contradiction in written history of nomadic societies .
(i) The work of scholars like Igor-de-Rachewiltz on “The secret History of the Mongols and Gorhard Doerfer. On Mongol and Turkic terminologies had infiltrated into the Persian language and made history of the central Asian nomads more difficult to understand.

(ii) Being the trans-continental span of the Mongol empire, the sources are written in several different languages.

(iii) There is difference between Mongqol-unniueatobeaan (The secret history of the Mongols) and Marco Polo’s travelogues in term of events and their description.

(iv) As we see in the chapter, in contrast to an eye witness report that 400 soldiers defended the citadel of Bukhara, II-Khanid chronicle reported that 30,000 soldiers were killed in the attack on the citadel. The reports also carried a statement of relief that times had changed and the great killings of the past were over.

Legacy of Genghis Khan was important, but for his descendants to appear as convincing heroes to a sedentary audience, they could no longer appear in quite the same way as their ancestor. On the basis of above grounds, we affirm the statement given for our opinion. Hence-opinion expressed on the basis of records described in the theme.

Question 5.
Keeping the nomadic element of the Mongol and Bedouin societies in mind, how, in your opinion, did their respective historical experiences differ? What explainations would you suggest account for these differences?
Answer:

Explanation
(i) The neglected and suppressed tribes i.e. Tatars, Khitan, Manchus and the Mongols by rulers of China and conditions being tough to survive after the great wall of China built, they adopted fair and unfair means to rule over trans-continental empire.

(ii) The topography being prosperous with the opportunity of trade, agriculture etc., the caliphates were formed instrument of ruling which remained for as long as 600 years. In Sultanate also, Caliphate was accepted as a facade. Eg. Mahmud also wished to receive a title of Sultan from the then Caliph (Abbasids) because originally, he was belonged to a slave’s son.

Question 6.
How does the following account enlarge upon the character of the Pax Mongolica created by the Mongols by the middle of the thirteenth century?
The Francis monk, William ofRubruck, was sent by Louis IX of France on an embassy to the great Khan Mongke’s court. He reached KaraKorum, the capital ofMongke, in 1254 and came upon a woman from Lorraine (in France) called Paquette, who had been brought from Hungary and was in the service of one of the prince’s wives who was a Nestorian Christian: At the court, he came across a Parisian goldsmith named Guillanme Boucher, whose brother dwelt on the Grand Point in Paris’.

This man was first employed by the queen Sorghagtani and then by Mongke’s younger brother. Rubruck found that at the great court festivals, the Nestorian priests were admitted first, with their regalia, to bless the grand Khan’s cup, and were followed by the Muslim clergy and Buddhist and Taoist monks
Answer:
The above account makes it ex-facie that owing to climax develoment of trade connections through silk route, a number of facilities and incentives were provided with the traders under Mongol i.e. nomadic empire. This was the period when said empire was extended from Europe to China.

Trade was continued norm into Mongolia and to Karakorum. Travellers were given a pass (paiza) in Persia or gerege in Mongolian for safe conduct of the business. Baj tax was imposed on traders in order to raise capital for investment on such facilities.

Earlier attitude of massacre of all peasantry and the conversion of their fields into pasture lands had been restricted to a large extent. In the 1290’s, the Mongol ruler of Iran, Ghazan Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan’s youngest son Toluy, warned family members and other generals to avoid pillaging the peasantry.

Multi-culture administration we see, during Pax Mongolica as civil administrators were recruited from the conquered subordinated subjugated societies. Chinese secretaries deployed in Iran and Persian secretaries were in China. Gradually, the aristocratic pattern of ruling was turned into individual dynasties each ruling their separate Ulus (i.e. territorial administration).

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for 11 History Chapter 4 The Central Islamic Lands Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation.

The Central Islamic Lands NCERT Solutions for Class 11 History Chapter 4

The Central Islamic Lands Questions and Answers Class 11 History Chapter 4

Question 1.
What were the features of the lives of the Bedouins in the early seventh century?
Answer:
Bedouin’s were nomadic tribes. They used to move from dry to green areas of the desert in search of food and fodder for their camels. Muhammad’s tribe was Quraysh. It owned/controlled main shrine in Mecca. Bedouins had stronger attachment to idols and shrines however, they have external sense that God is supreme like Jewish and Christian tribes. These were one of the tribes in Arab.

Question 2.
What is meant by the term ‘Abbasid revolution’?
Answer:
It was a revolution called dawa which brought down the Umayyads in 750. It not only overthrew Umayyads dynasty but the political structure and culture of Islam also. Muhammed’s uncle was Abbas and decendants of Abbas were Abbasids.

They spread a myth that a messiah (mahdi) from the family of the Prophet (ahl al-bayt) would liberate them from the oppressive Umayyad’s regime. Besides, they waged war against Umayyad dynasty, the Caliph Marwan was defeated in a battle at the river Zab. Thus, Abbasid revolution was a movement against Umayyad dynasty in which Abbasid dynasty took over the power of the state.

Question 3.
Give examples of the cosmopolitan character of the states set-up by Arabs, Iranians and Turks.
Answer:
Cosmopolitan character of the states set-up by Arabs, Iranians and Turks
(a) Arabs—

• There were several tribes but all of them accepted the Caliphate system of governance.
• As discrimination usually is found in cosmopolitan character, there were Arab and non-Arab individuals, Sunni and Siyas conflicting each-other.
• Society was ruled by varied canons which were in vogue e.g. claims differently for Calipha, a position of the deputy to God or the Shahenshah.
• Calendar depicts also the cosmopolitan nature of the state. It was Islamic calendar in which new year starts with Hijri.
• There were different languages spoken, different dresses the people wore.
• Islamic society exhibited multiple political and cultural patterns—one of the main features of cosmopolitan.

(b) Iranians —

• Agriculture was main occupation and taxes on land was the main sources of income to coffer.
• Nomaidic tribes gradually came to power in Iran i.e. Parthians, Sasanians.
• Urban centres were the main source of income to exchequer.
• Here also was the Islamic religion in vogue.

(c) Turks —

• Mixed with the Muslims and a different communities, all nomadic tribes.
• Different languages were spoken as the records of Shahenshah’s reveal.
• Fiscal arrangements and coinage were adopted as in other administrations.

On the premises above, we can state that the society during Arab, Iranian and Turks regime was of cosmopolitan nature.

Question 4.
What were the effects of the crusades on Europe and Asia?
Answer:
Effects on Europe—

• Hostility increased between Christendom and the Islamic world.
• Muslims addressed Christians as firangi.
• Holy land (Palestine) became the bone of contention.
• Salahaldin waged crusade against the Christian.
• Europe suffered severely. It waged crusades but could not save Palestine from the seizure of the Arabs.

Thus, the first effect on Europe was that of the harsher attitude of the Muslim state towards its Christian subjects. The second effect was that of increase in influence of Italian mercantile communities in trade between the east and the west even after the restoration of Muslim power.

Asia—
(i) Iranian merchants discovered silk route to China.
(ii) Trans Soxiano extended north to Russia and Scandinavia ‘ for the exchange of European goods and Slavic captives. s
(iii) For five centuries, Arab and Iranian traders monopolised the maritime trade between China, India and Europe.
(iv) Manufacture of paper (made from linen) started.

Question 5.
How were Islamic architectural forms different from those of the Roman empire?
Answer:

Question 6.
Describe a journey from Samarkand to Damascus, referring to the cities on the route.
Answer:
Presently, Samarkand falls under Russia and Damascus and it is a port city near Syria. The cities between this route were Antioch, Aleppo, Samarra, Daylam, Merv and Samarkand. It is confirmed by stating the routes adopted for trading that period.

Iranian merchants set-out from Baghdad along the silk route to China via the oasis cities of Bukhara and Samarkand (Transo Xiana). Trading items were mainly paper and silk. The paper manufacturing and exporting countries were in Central Asia and China.

Bukhara and Samarkand made commercial link from north to Russia and Scandinavia. Fur was the main item of trading from European countries including purchase of captives subsequently, made slaves. Islamic coins have been found by archaeologists along the Volga river and in the Baltic region.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for 11 History Chapter 3 An Empire Across Three Continents Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation.

An Empire Across Three Continents NCERT Solutions for Class 11 History Chapter 3

An Empire Across Three Continents Questions and Answers Class 11 History Chapter 3

Question 1.
If you had lived in the Roman Empire where would you rather had lived – in the towns or in the countryside? Explain why?
Answer:
As the historians of that period, Strato and Pliny have stated, I would have lived in countryside specially either in Campania or Sicily in Italy. This is because these were the wealthiest areas for production of wheat and other grains. Thus, I would have exported grains in large quantum and would have deserved a seat in senate.

Question 2.
Compile a list of some of the towns, cities, rivers, seas and provinces mentioned in this chapter and then try and find them on the maps. Can you say something about any three of the items in the list you have compiled?
Answer:

Our Description About The Three Items

1. Provinces— The period during first to early third centuries, the army and administration were drawn from the provinces and upper class of provinces replaced the senatorial class because of support they received from the emperors.

2. Cities— A city in the Roman sense was an urban centre with its own magistrates, City Council and a Territory containing villages which were under its jurisdiction. A city could not be upgraded by merging territory of another but villages could be upgraded to the status of cities and vice-versa depending on favour by the emperors.

3. Rivers— Rivers played an important role in the prosperity of the Campania, Sicily, Fayum, Galilee, Tunisia, Southern Gaul and Baetica the most fertile for growing olive trees, wheat etc. and helped their export between the provinces. These rivers were the Nile, Rhine, the Danube, the Guedalquivir and Euphrates.

Question 3.
Imagine that you are a Roman housewife preparing a shopping list for household requirements. What would be on the list?
Answer:
Shopping list of household goods
Eatables— Wheat flour, olive oil, barley, lentils, peas, wine.
Clothes— made of silk, different style.
As only the above things have been described in the theme, we cannot mention anything more than the above here.

Question 4.
Why do you think the Roman government stopped coining in silver? And which metal did it begin to use for the production of coinage?
Answer:
The silver mines in Spain were exhausted hence, there was short supply of silver and government ran out of sufficient stocks of the metal to support a stable coinage in silver. Another metal used by Constantine therefore, was the gold which had an ample availability there.

Question 5.
Suppose the emperor Trajan had actually managed to conquer India and the Romans has held on to the country for several centuries. In what ways do you think India might be different today?
Answer:
The contemporary historian Cassius Dio to Trajan, the emperor of Roman empire described that he (the king) launched a campaign and marched down with his troops down the Euphrates to Ctesiphon, the Parthian Capital and then to the head of the Persian Gulf in 116 CE.

Had he crossed the Persian Gulf and entered into India, there would have come certain changes in almost all the fields of art, science, astronomy, graffiti and science as also in architecture. We can give a. brief account of changes as under

In architecture— Public baths would have been constructed, we would have seen massive aqueducts like Pont Dugard in France, amphitheater, dining halls, piazzas with columns.

In arts — The famous mosaic as we read about in Edessa (Syria) would have decorated all our historical monuments in India.

In Administration — Aristocracy in the nameof Principate would have managed the state affairs here and three organs of governments would the emperor, the senate and the Army.

In economy — Denarius and solidus coins would have adopted here like Roman empire and frequent mutiny by army would have taken place. System of taxation on provinces and subordinated kingdoms would have imposed and a number of urban centres emerged. Peasantry would have suffered much due to collection of grains produced.

Society — India Succession (Reforms) Act, 2005 as passed now would have ab-initio given effect here and it would have made the females able to get a share in property of their fathers, but husbands authority not transferred to them. However, the divorce system just on notice of intension would have shattered the families here.

India bestows honour to woman since the beginning but had it under control of Roman empire; those would have beaten by their husbands as described by saint Augustine (354-430CE) about the harsh treatment of his father to his mother and his siblings. People would have consumed wine in all nuclear families leaving children and spouses helpless and orphan like.

Conclusion— Thus, we conclude here that India would have suffered a lot on several counts viz. family, society, slavery, intermixture of culture and oppression by the senators i.e. nobles, army and the prefect of urban centres. In brief, there would left no identity so specific as we enjoy today. However, in the field of architecture, astronomy, astrology and arts, we would have achieved top position in the world.

Question 6.
Go through the chapter carefully and pick out some basic features of Roman society and economy which you think make it look quite modern.
Answer:
Basic features of Roman society and Economy
(a) Society
(i) The widespread prevalence of the nuclear family norms which we observe presently in India, where joint family system has dissolved completely.

(ii) Much or less we see the effect and intention of passing Indian Succession (Reforms) Act, 2005 in the Roman society where women remained a primary heir of her father.

(iii) Modern trend of being husband and wife not one but two financial entity and complete legal independence, we would observe in the Roman society.

(iv) There was no place for tolerance between spouse as mere a notice of intent to dissolve.the marriage by either husband or wife was. suffice for divorce. This trend we see in modern society amply, as the divorce cases are frequently piling at the courts.

(v) Alike today we see, the Roman society was formed of Princep (the leading citizen), the senate (a body nominated by nobility), the knights respectable section of the people (attached to great houses), and unkempt lower class (addicted to the circus and theatrical displays). If we go in depth to this formation, resemblance of it to modem society is all apparent.

Here we see Presidents as Princep however, nominal head unlike the Roman period in which he was enjoying real power under a facade (viz just reverse). Senate here resembles to Rajya Sabha elected indirectly by MPs but of less power than Lok Sabha as in Rome. Again knights here are the Chairmen of business houses, College Principals, Professors, Municipal heads etc. who participated in election of President, Governor, members of Rajya Sabha and legislative councils.

The unkempt lower class addicted to theatres etc. pastimes are also here but with some difference because the populace have given them the most importance and we can not say them unkempt but the wealthiest people in the society. The populace has no hesitation to elect them as MLA, MPs, i.e. this section has now superceded gradually, the senate of then but presently, these we see as knights (i.e. respectable section of the people). This part of society includes also the robbers, pirates and murderers not yet convicted in the courts. Thus, we see apparent resemblance here.

(b) Economy— Likewise Roman Aristocracy, we observe in democracy the so-called great houses (i.e. senators! knights as described above comprising film stars and miscreants) containing hippodromes (Grand bungalows, cars etc. at present), fountains and different kinds of baths etc. these pastimers i.e. film artiste, cricketers and criminals are enjoying facilities many times more than the MPs and MLAs (i.e. senators) and have maintained strong-hold in modern democracies.

As Olympiodorus, a historian of There says, this section of society or integral part of Aristocracy was receiving four’thousand pounds of gold per year excluding grain, wine and other produce which if sold, would have around to one-third of the income in gold; much or less the same position is being enjoyed by these modern people.

There were different measures exercised in controlling the workers in Roman economy viz

• employ causal labourers for harvesting purpose in order to save expenditure incurred every year on them
• slave breeding or wage labour preferred,
• provided capital to run business on their behalf
• chained them in a team of ten labourers each
• put seal on their apron and wear a mask on their head
• brand the labours
• cast agreement with workers in the form of debt contracts.

Besides above modern characteristics, we see that silver and gold corns had been circulated in Roman empire.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for 11 History Chapter 2 Writing and City Life Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation.

Writing and City Life NCERT Solutions for Class 11 History Chapter 2

Writing and City Life Questions and Answers Class 11 History Chapter 2

Question 1.
Why do we say that it was not natural fertility and high levels of food production that were the causes of early urbanisation?
Answer:
It is because urbanization activity has nothing to do with natural fertility and high levels of food productions. These characteristics have nexus with the villages and their extension not of cities. Actually, division of labour is a mark of urban life. Urban economics comprise trade, manufactures and services.

People expert in particular art or skill have to depend on others for the raw material e.g. carver of stone seal requires bronze tools and coloured stones. Similarly, bronze tool maker requires copper and tin to smelter into bronze and make tools. Besides this organized trade and storage is also required.

Thus, a number of activities are performed by different hands viz. a number of transactions would take place and this require the keeping of written records. Those all conditions were ready to use in Mesopotamian civilization which resulted in early urbanization there.

Question 2.
Which of the following were necessary conditions and which the causes, of early urbanisation, and which would you say were the outcome of the growth of cities :
(a) highly productive agriculture
(b) water transport
(c) the lack of metal and stone
(d) the division of labour
(e) the use of goals

(f) the military power of kings that made labour compulsory?
Answer:
Necessary conditions for early urbanization — These are the division of labour, highly productive agriculture, water transport and the else of seals.

Outcome of the growth of cities — water transport started by virtue of growth of cities in order to import metals, stones and other required items for artisans and artists in the city. The military power of kings increased and there made labour compulsory.

Question 3.
Why were mobile animal herders not necessarily a threat to town life?
Answer:
The mobile or nomadic animal herders were not doing any harm to the towns because of lying there no standing crops to which the animal destroy. Instead, they facilitated buying of animal flesh at a cheaper rate in towns.

Question 4.
Why would the early temple have been much like a house?
Answer:
The early temples were much like a house because —

• Those were residences of various gods at the same place like family members in a house.
• There were several rooms around open courtyards like a house.
• A number of processing activities for oil, grain-grinding, spinning and weaving of woolen cloth were done in the temple as a house is used for various works by members of the family living in the house.

Question 5.
Of the new institutions that came into being once city life had begun, which would have depended on the initiative of the king?
Answer:
New Institutions emerged under initiative of the king :
(i) Settlement of villagers near capital town—The chiefs or kings encouraged the settlement of villagers close to capital town so that an army could be formed whenever so required. E.g. Uruk city extended in 250 hectares of land. It was subsequently, occupied 400 hectares about 2800 B.E.

(ii) Public distribution system — Public distribution system came into being for the labourers in construction of temples and for the war captives. The ration-cards issued contained name and address of the holder, quantities of grain, cloth or oil allotted to them. Apart from above, technology developed at Uruk city around 3000 BC when the kings took interest in temple construction. In the process, metals and stones were fetched from distant countries.

This movement of people brought the arts viz. sculpture, painting, architecture, they said and introduced with them in distant cc entries. Thus, various crafts came into being. Hundreds of people were part of work at making and baking clay cones that could be pushed into temple walls, painted in different colours, creating a colourful mosaic. In sculpture, there were superb achievements, not in early available’ clay but in imported stones.

Question 6.
What do ancient stories tell us about the civilisation of Mesopotamia?
Answer:
The stories about floods are ways of preserving and expressing memories about important changes in history. Floods were described as deluge in which the entire earth is immersed deep into water body so formed and clogged. Sumerian epic poem bears a story about Enmerkar.

He sent a messenger to get Lapis Lazuli or silver from the chief of Aracta but in spite of several back and forth movements, the messenger could not get the chief of Aratta to part with silver until the king wrote a ‘letter in cuneiform on a clay tablet. It reflects the earlier stage of commerce and trade and importance of writing for Mesopotamia civilization. The kings thus, organized trade and writing story in Gilamesh epic refers to people of Mesopotamia, the most attachment they had for the city life.

These stories tell people’s faith in rebirth, dreams and their allegiance for temples and towns. It was Nabonidus’s respect for kingship that he got the state of Sargon, the king of Akkad referred by craftsmen.