CBSE Class 12

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 7 An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-7/

An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 7

An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 7

Question 1.
What have been the methods used to study the ruins of Hampi over the last two centuries? In what ways do you think they would have complemented the information provided by the priests of the Virupaksha Temple?
Or
Describe the various efforts made by scholars to reconstruct the history of the city and the empire from the ruins of Hampi upto the 20th century. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Or
How and when were the ruins of Hampi brought to light ? Explain briefly.
Answer:
An engineer and antiquarian Colonel Colin Mackenzie brought the ruins of Hampi to light in 1800 C.E. He was an employee in the East India Company. He prepared the first survey map of this site. His initial informations were based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and shrine of Pampadevi. From 1856 C.E.

onwards, photographers started to record the pictures of monuments of this site which helped the scholars to study them. Dozens of inscriptions were collected from here and other temples of Hampi. Historians collected information from these sources, accounts of foreign travellers and other literature written in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit language so that history of the city could be reconstructed. These functions complemented the information given by priests of the Virupaksha temple.

Question 2.
How were the water requirements of Vijayanagara met ?
Or
Explain how the people of Vijayanagara obtained water for their needs. (C.B.S.E. 2009)
Or
Why were the water resources of the Vijayanagara Empire developed ? Give reasons. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (O.D.))
Answer:
The need of water in Vijayanagara was fulfilled from the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flowed in the north-eastern direction. This river was surrounded by stunning granite hills which formed a girdle around the city. These hills were also the source of a large number of streams which flowed down to the river Tungabhadra.

So, the rulers of Vijayanagara got built large embankments to store water. They also constructed reservoirs of varying sizes and made arrangements to store the rain water as this was the most arid zone of the peninsula. A very large tank was built in the fifteenth century which is now called as the Kamalapuram tank. The water of this tank served the following purposes :

• It irrigated the nearby fields.
• It fulfilled the needs of the royal centre.

Besides, the ruins of the Hiriya canal have also been found. This canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra river. It irrigated the cultivated valley.

Question 3.
What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city ?
Answer:
A great fortification of Vijayanagara was accomplished in the fifteenth century. It also encircled the agricultural heartland and forests. This encirclement had the following advantages :

• It enclosed agricultural tracts, cultivated fields, gardens and forests.
• It had an elaborate canal system which drew water from the Tungabhadra.
• In the medieval period, sieges were laid to starve the defending armies into submission. These sieges lasted for many months or many years. So the rulers of Vijayanagara adopted an elaborate strategy to protect the agricultural belt and build large granaries.
• This encirclement also saved crops from animals.

Drawbacks :

• This system was very expensive.
• It was inconvenient for farmers during adverse circumstances.

Question 4.
What do you think, was the significance of the rituals associated with Mahanavami Dibba ?
Or
“Domingo Paes has called the Mahanavami Dibba of Vijayanagara Empire as ‘The House of Victory.” Justify. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (D))
Or
“The Mahanavami Dibba in the Royal centre of Vijayanagara has been assigned name on the basis of its form of building as will as function.” Elaborate. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (D))
Or
Highlight the aspects observed by the Domingo Paes on the Mahanavmi Dibba of the Vijaynagara Empire. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Or
Identify the rituals and practices associated with the Mahanavami Dibba, a structure in the Royal centre of Vijayanagara Empire.
(C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Or
“Mahanavami Dibba of Vijayanagara was the centre.of elaborate rituals”. Explain the statement with suitable examples. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (D))
Answer:
The Mahanavami Dibba was the king’s palace in Vijayanagara though there is no definite evidence. It had a distinctive structure. It had the largest enclosures and an impressive platform called as ‘the audience hall’. It was surrounded by high double walls with a street running between them.

There were many rituals associated with the Mahanavami Dibba. Literally, Mahanavami meant the great ninth day of the ten-day Hindu festival during the autumn months of September and October. This period had Dussehra in the northern India, Durga Pooja in Bengal and Navaratri or Mahanavami in peninsular India. The rulers of Vijayanagara displayed their power and prestige on this occasion.

The ceremonies performed on this occasion included :

(i) Worship of the image
(ii) Worship of the State horse
(iii) The sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals.
(iv) The main attractions of this occasion were:

• Dances
• Wrestling matches
• Processions of caparisoned horses, elephants, chariots and soldiers.

All these ceremonies had deep symbolic meanings. Most of them were presented before the king and his guests. On the last day of the festival, the king inspected his army as well as the armies of the nayaks. He also accepted rich gifts from the nayaks. There was a grand ceremony in an open field.

Question 5.
Given picture is an illustration of another pillar from the Virupaksha temple. Do you notice any floral motifs ? What are the animals shown ? Why do you think they are depicted ? Describe the human figures shown.
Answer:
Given illustration of the pillar from the Virupaksha temple has pictures of plants bearing flowers and different animals- birds. Animals-birds include peacock, horse, duck, etc. These pictures were probably carved on gateways to attract people. These pictures also express devotion, religiousness and love for art of patronage ruler.

Except this, different animals and birds were associated with different gods and goddesses. That is why they were also worshipped.
Human pictures include both deities and their worshippers. The God is shown bearing malas and crown. He also has a gadda in his hands. Probably he was a destroyer of Rakshashas. In another picture, one devotee is shown near to a ‘Shivlinga’. This method of worship is also strange which is not applicable in any form.

Question 6.
Discuss whether the term ‘royal centre’ is an appropriate description for the part of the city for which it is used.
Or
Explain the importance of the Royal Centre in Vijayanagara with a special focus on its important structures. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
or
Explain the role of Royal Centre played in the social and political life of Vijayanagara.
Or
Why was the south-western part of Vijayanagara settlement designated as Royal Centre ? Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Answer:
The Royal Centre existed in the south western part of the Vijayanagara. It had more than sixty temples. Through these temples, the rulers of Vijayanagara tried to establish, strengthen and legitimise their authority. They associated themselves with the divinities housed in the shrines. This Royal Centre had about thirty palaces. Many buildings had large and distinctive structures. These super structures were made of perishable materials. Many of these buildings were not associated with ritual functions.

The main complexes of the royal centre were as follows :
The Kings’s Palace : It is the largest complex of the royal centre. There is no definite evidence to show that it was a royal residence. It had two very impressive platforms. They were called as the Audience Hall and the Mahanavami Dibba. The kings’s palace was surrounded by high double walls with a street running between the two walls.

(a) The Audience Hall : It was a high platform having wooden pillars at close and regular intervals. It had a staircase which went upto the second floor. This staircase rested on the pillars. However it is not clear for what purpose was the hall used.

(b) The Mahanavami Dibba : It was a massive platform having a base of about 11000 sq. ft. It has a height of forty feet. It supported a wooden structure. The base of the platform was covered with relief carvings.

Rituals associated with this structure were probably coincided with Mahanavami known variously as Dusshera in northern India, Durga Pooja in Bengal and Navaratri in peninsular India. The rulers of Vijayanagara displayed their power, prestige and sovereignty on this occasion.

Main ceremonies associated with this occasion worshipped the image, worship of State horse, sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals, etc. Main attractions of this occasion were

• Dances
• Wrestling matches
• Procession of caparisoned horses, elephants and chariots and soldiers
• Ritual presentation by nayaks and the subordinate kings before the king and his guests to mark the occasion.

These ceremonies had great symbolic meaning. King used to inspect his army and armies of the nayaks in a grand ceremony in an open field on last day of the festival. Nayaks, on this occasion, used to bring gifts and stipulated tribute for the king.

Question 7.
What does the architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables tell us about the rulers who commissioned them?
Or
“Vijayanagara was characterised by a distinctive building style” Support this statement with the sacred “architectural examples of Vijayanagara. (C.B.S.E 2014 (O.D.))
Answer:
Lotus Mahal was one of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre. It was given this name by the British travellers in the 19th century. Historians are not quite sure that for which function this building was built. But the map drawn by Mackenzie suggests that it may have been a council chamber where the king used to meet his advisers.

There was an elephant stable near the Lotus Mahal in which a number of rooms were lined. The king used to keep large number of elephants over here. Architecture style of Lotus Mahal and nearby stable remind us about Indo-Islamic style. Rulers of Vijayanagara Kingdom used to built such elaborate buildings and spend a lot of money on them. They were of the view that beauty of these palaces will increase their prestige among masses.

Question 8.
What are the architectural traditions that inspired the architects of Vijayanagara ? How did they transform these traditions ?
Answer:
The rulers of Vijayanagara made many innovations in the architectural traditions. They added many new features in the temple architecture. These large structures were a show of their imperial authority. For example, they built gopuram and royal gateways. The towers of the central shrines signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance. But  the royal gateway surpassed them in height. They reminded the power of the kings and showed that the kings had full command over the resources, techniques
and skills.

The rulers of Vijayanagara also got built Mandapas as pavilions. Besides there were long and pillared corridors that ran around the shrines. There were two main temples . The Virupaksha Temple and the Vitthala Temple. The Virupaksha Temple was built over the centuries. It was constructed in the 9th-10th centuries. But after the establishment of Vijayanagara Empire, it was substantially enlarged. Krishna Deva Raya built a hall in front of the main shrine which marked his accession to the throne. It was decorated with delicately carved pillars.

Many temple complexes had chariot streets. These streets extended from the temple gopuram in a straight line. They were paved with slabs of stone. They were lined with pillared pavilions. The merchants set up their shops in these pavilions. In other words, the rulers of Vijayanagara built impressive buildings.

Question 9.
What impression of the lives of the ordinary people of Vijayanagara can you call from the various descriptions in the chapter ?
Answer:
The meaning of ordinary people is by those people who did not participate in power structure. Rich merchants were also included among them. Following were the main features of their lives:
(i) Archaeologists have found some fine Chinese porcelain in certain areas. They are of the view that rich traders probably lived over here. This was also the Muslim residential quarter. Tombs and mosques located over here are distinctive features of art, but still their architecture style resembles with that of the architecture of mandapas found in the temples of Hampi.

(ii) Portuguese traveller Barbosa of 16th century describes the houses of ordinary people like this, “the other houses of the people are thatched, but nonetheless well built and arranged according to the occupations, in long streets with many open places.”

(iii) Field surveys suggest that there were many shrines and small temples in the entire area which belonged to vivid cults. They probably were supported by different communities. Surveys also indicate that wells, rainwater tanks and temple tanks were probably the main sources of water for ordinary town people.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 8 Peasants, Zamindars and the State: Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-8/

Peasants, Zamindars and the State: Agrarian Society and the Mughal EmpireNCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 8

Peasants, Zamindars and the State: Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 8

Question 1.
What are the problems in using the Ain as a source for reconstructing agrarian history ? How do historians deal with this situation ?
Answer:
Ain-i-Akbari was written by Abul Fazl in 1598 C.E. He had revised it five times to avoid any kind of errors. He collected and compiled all his information with an extra caution. He verified and cross-checked all the oral testimonies before their inclusion in his book. In fact, he wanted to minimise the chances of transcriptional errors. However, many historians have found some problems in this book. First of all, they have found out many errors in totalling.

Secondly, the quantitative data has not been uniformly collected from all the provinces. For example, Abul Fazl has not given the caste composition of Zamindars in Bengal and Orissa. Thirdly, he had not given any vital parameters in the determination of prices and wages. He based his assessment on the data that he got from Agra.

To get rid of these drawbacks, the historians use all documents that they found in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra in the 17th and 18th centuries. They have also come across many documents of East India Company which throw a light on the agriculture of Mughal times.

Question 2.
To what extent is it possible to characterise agricultural production in the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries as subsistence agriculture ? Give reasons for your answer.
Or
How were the subsistence and commercial production closely inter¬twined in an average peasant’s holding during the Mughal period in 16th and 17th centuries ? Explain. (C.B.S.E 2014 (O.D))
Answer:
During the Mughal period, the primary purpose of agriculture was to feed the people. So most of the peasants grew basic staples such as rice, wheat or millets. They heavily depended on Monsoon which was intrinsically the backbone of the Indian agriculture. Additional water was required to irrigate the fields and therefore artificial systems of irrigation were developed.

In the northern India, the state undertook the digging of new canals (nahar or nala) and the repair of old canals like Shah-nahr in Punjab. Besides, the farmers used those technologies which harnessed animal power.

The agriculture moved around two major seasonal cycles. The Kharif was sown in the autumn season. The Rabi was sown in the spring season. All the farmers produced a minimum of two crops in a year. A few others even grew three crops. Thus, agriculture was not only for subsistence but also to earn profit or more money.

The use of term Jins-i-Kamil meant perfect crops. Most of the peasants grew cash crops which brought in more revenue. They considered cotton and sugarcane an excellent crops to earn profit. Thus, subsistence and commercial production were closely linked to an average peasant.

Question 3.
Describe the role played by women in agricultural production.
Or
How were women considered an important resource in agrarian society ? (C.B.S.E. 2012 (O.D.))
Or
Examine the role of women as an important resource in agrarian society in the 16th-17th centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (Comp.))
Or
Describe briefly the role of women in agrarian society during 16th and ,17th centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2012 (O.D.))
Answer:
During the Mughal period, women worked shoulder to shoulder with men in the fields. Men tilled and ploughed the fields whereas women sowed, weeded, threshed and winnowed the harvest. In other words, there was no gender-based segregation in the Mughal society. Both worked hard to enhance the agricultural production.

The women belonging to the landed gentry enjoyed the right to inherit property. Many examples have been cited by the historians from Punjab to show that women actively participated in the rural land market. They sold the property which they had inherited. A few women also performed artisanal tasks. They spun yarn and sifted and kneaded clay for pottery. Besides, they did the embroidery work.

Question 4.
Discuss, with examples, the significance of monetary transactions during the period under consideration.
Answer:
(i) During the Mughal period, India witnessed a growth in trade via sea. It led to the start of an export of various goods. Due to this export, there was a rapid inflow of silver in the market in Asia. Much part of this silver also reached India. It was a good thing for India as it lacked natural resources of silver. As a result, there was an economic stability due to silver currency.

There was an unparalleled expansion in the minting of coins and monetary transactions. Besides, the Mughals found it easy to collect the revenue in cash. Jovanni Karari, an Italian traveller, passed through India in 1690 C.E. He has clearly written how silver reached India from all parts of the world. From his description, we also come to know how there was an exchange of cash and goods in India in the 17th century.

(ii) The mutual exchange in villages was also in cash. As the villages had set up links in the urban markets, there was a considerable increase in monetary business. In this way, villages became an important part of the monetary market.

(iii) Due to the monetary transactions, it was easy to pay daily wages to labourers in cash.

Question 5.
Examine the evidence that suggest that land revenue was important for the Mughal fiscal system.
Or
Examine vivid aspects of the Land revenue system of the Mughal empire. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (Comp.))
Answer:
Land revenue was the main source of income during the Mughal period. Therefore the State considered it vital to create an administrative apparatus to ensure control over agricultural production. This arrangement was fixed to collected revenue in the whole country. There was an office (daftar) of the Diwan who supervised the fiscal system of the Mughal Empire.

The collection of revenue had two important stages. First of all, the revenue was assessed. Secondly, it was collected. The first stage was called as the Jama and the second stage was referred to as the Hasil. According to a decree of Akbar, it was the duty of revenue collector (amil-guzar) to make cultivators pay in cash. However, the option of making payment in kind was also kept open. Thus, monetary transactions during the Mughal period were quite significant.

Question 6.
To what extent do you think caste was a factor in influencing social and economic relations in agrarian society ?
Or
Describe caste and rural milieu of Mughal India. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Answer:
Caste has greatly influenced social and economic relations of the people in an agrarian society. Because of caste-based inequalities or distinctions, we find many heterogeneous groups in the society. Many of those who tilled the land, worked as menials or agricultural labourers (majurs). As they did menial jobs in society, they were relegated to poverty. They had the lowest position in the caste hierarchy as they lacked resources.

Such caste-based distinctions and inequalities were also found in the Muslim communities where people did scavenging. They lived outside the boundaries of the village. Thus, there was a direct co-relation between caste, poverty and social status at the lower level. But at the intermediate level, these co-relations were not so marked.

In the 17th century, Marwar Rajputs were considered as important as the Jats, though these Jats had a lower status in the caste hierarchy. On the other hand, the Gauravas, who cultivated land near Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh, sought Rajput status in the 17th century. Similarly Ahirs, Gujjars and Malis rose in the caste hierarchy because they earned huge profits. In the end, we can say that caste is a great determining factor in both social and economic relations.

Question 7.
How were the lives of forest dwellers transformed in the sixteenth ; and seventeenth centuries ?
Or
Who were the forest dwellers ? Explain how their lives changed in the 16th and 17th centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Or
Describe the life of forest dwellers in the Mughal Era. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (O.D.))
Or
Examine how were the lives of forest dwellers transformed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Answer:
Forest dwellers were often termed as Jangli in the Mughal period. But it did not mean that they had no civilisation. Rather, it means that the forest- dwellers were those people who earned their livelihood from the produce of forests. They were also engaged in hunting and shifting cultivation. They mostly performed specific seasonal activities. For example, the Bhils collected the forest produce in spring. They went on fishing in summer, they cultivated their land in the months of monsoon and went for hunting in autumn and winter. So they exercised a perpetual mobility.

Capturing and supply of elephants : Many forest-dwellers captured elephants. They supplied these elephants to the royal army. So the peshkash levied from the forest people often included a supply of elephants.

The spread of commercial agriculture : Many forest dwellers made use of the spread of commercial agriculture. They exported honey, gum and wax to other countries in the seventeenth century.

Overland trade : Many tribesmen like the Lohanis of Punjab were engaged in an overland trade between India and Afghanistan. So most of them had become Zamindars. A few of them had even become kings.

Military service : Many tribesmen rendered military services to the king. They also demanded when they became the kings, that their fraternity should provide military service. For example, the Ahom kings had people who provided them military service in exchange for land.

Question 8.
Examine the role played by Zamindars in the Mughal India. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Or
Explain the role of Zamindars in Mughal India during 16th-17th centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (O.D.))
Or
Explain why the Zamindars were central to the agrarian relations in the Mughal period. (C.B.S.E. Sample Paper 2011)
Or
Explain the origin, consolidation and the role of zamindars in the villages. ‘ Were they an exploitative class ? (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Or
Analyse the role of zamindars during the Mughal period. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Or
Explain the role played by ‘.zamindars during 16th and 17th ‘centuries in India. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (D))
Answer:
The Zamindars were that class of the people who did not directly participate in the processes of agricultural production. They enjoyed an elevated status in the society.
(i) The Zamindars were the proprietors of their land. They considered their land as their property (milkiyat). They could sell, give and mortgage it. They enjoyed many social and economic privileges because of their superior status in the society.

(ii) The Zamindars belonged to the upper caste. It added to their exalted status in society.

(iii) The Zamindars rendered certain services (Khidmat) for the state for which they got respect and position in the state.

(iv) The Zamindars became very powerful because they collected revenue on behalf of the state. They also got financial compensation for this work.

(v) Another source for the power of Zamindars in society was their control over the military resources. They kept a fortress as well as an armed unit comprising of cavalry, artillery and infantry.

(vi) The Zamindars played an important role in inhabiting and developing the agricultural land. They helped in the settlements of farmers by lending them money and agricultural instruments. Because of the sale and purchase of land by the Zamindars, the market became quite brisk. Besides the Zamindars used to sell the crops grown on their land. There are evidences that the Zamindars held bazaars where even the farmers came to sell their crops.

(vii) If we observe social relations of villages of the Mughal age as a pyramid, then Zamindars were at the top, i.e., their place was the highest.

(viii) There is no doubt in the fact that the Zamindars belonged to an exploitative class. But their relations with the farmers depended on their mutual togetherness and hereditary patronge. That is why Zamindars often got support of peasants in case of their revolt against the state.

Question 9.
Discuss the ways in which Panchayat and village headman regulated the rural society.
Or
Explain the ways through which Mughal village Panchayats and village headmen regulated rural society. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Or
Explain the role of Panchayats in the Mughal rural Indian society during 16th – 17th centuries.(C.B.S.E. 2014 (D))
Or
Examine the role of Panchayat as the main constituent of the Mughal village community. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (D))
Or
Assess the role played by Panchayats in the villages during ’ l Mughal Period. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (O.D.))
Or
“The village Panchayat during the Mughal period regulated rural society.” .Explain the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Answer:
The village Panchayat was an assembly of elders or important people of the village. In villages, where people of many castes lived, the Panchayat was usually a heterogeneous body. It represented all the castes and communities. Its decisions were binding on all its members.

Role of the Headman : The Panchayat was headed by a muqaddam or mandal. He was usually called the headman and was often chosen with consensus of the village elders. He remained in the office till he enjoyed the confidence of the elders of the village. He supervised the village accounts and was assisted by a patwari or an accountant. He also coordinated activity to tide over natural calamities like floods and tried to prevent caste-based offences.

Functions of Panchayats : The main function of the Panchayat was to ensure that all communities lived within caste boundaries. Secondly, it had the authority to levy fines. Thirdly, it could also give more serious

punishments like expulsion from the community. It acted as a deterrent to violation of caste norms.
Jati Panchayats : The Jati Panchayats had a considerable influence in rural society. In Rajasthan, the Jati Panchayats resolved civil disputes between members of different castes. They also mediated in disputed cases of land.

They also decided if the marriage were solemnised in accordance with the norms of particular castes. The decisions of the Jati Panchayats were even respected by the state.Archival records of western India, especially Rajasthan and Maharashtra, include few petitions presented to Panchayat complaining about collecting taxes forcefully or the demand of hegar, i.e., unpaid labour.

These petitions were generally submitted by most weaker sections of rural communities. These petitions were made collectively by a community or caste group against the morally illegitimate demands of elite groups. One of these demands was excessive taxes. They considered right of minimum basic means of life as their traditional rights. They wanted that Gram Panchayat should listen to this and must ensure that state must give them justice.

In case of demand of excessive taxes, different classes were advised by Panchayat to come to a compromise. When reconciliation was not possible, peasants took more drastic forms of resistance like deserting the village. As uncultivated land was easily available and there was competition over labour resources, it was an effective weapon in the hands of cultivators.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns: Early States and Economies Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-2/

Kings, Farmers and Towns: Early States and Economies NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 2

Kings, Farmers and Towns: Early States and Economies Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 2

Question 1.
Discuss the evidences of craft production in early historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidences from Harappan cities ?
Answer:
The towns of Harappa have been widely excavated. From excavations, we have found evidences about the Harappan craftsmanship. Contrary to it, the excavation of the early historical towns is not possible because in these regions, people still live. Even then, we have found a wide range of artefacts. There are certainly other evidences of things produced by the craftsmen.

The craft production in early towns :

(i) From these sites, fine pottery bowls and dishes have been found. They had a glossy finish. They were known as Northern Black Polished Ware. They were probably used by the rich people.

(ii) There have been evidences of ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels and figurines. There were also a wide range of things which were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.

(iii) The donor inscriptions tell us that the washermen, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials and religious teachers lived in these towns. The blacksmiths made things from iron. There are no evidences of iron in the towns of Harappa.

(iv) The craft producers and merchants had formed their guilds or shrenis. They bought the raw material and went in for regulated production. In the end, they marketed the finished goods.

Question 2.
Describe the salient features of Mahaj anapadas.
Or
State any three features of Mahaj anapadas. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Answer:
In the early texts of Buddhism and Jainism, we find a mention of sixteen states under the name of Mahajanapadas. Though the names of all these Mahajanapadas are not uniform in these books, yet the names of Vajji, Magadha, Kaushal, Kuru, Panchal, Gandhar and others have been noted. It indicates that all these Mahajanapadas must have been very important.

Main Characteristics : The main features of the Mahajanapadas are as follows :
(i) Most of the Mahajanapadas were ruled by a king. But a group of people ruled those states which were known as Republics. Every person of this group was called a king. Lord Mahavira and Lord Buddha had relation with this Republics. Like the Republics of Vajji, in some other states, the king and the people had a collective control over the economic resources.

(ii) Every Mahaj anapada had its own capital and was often surrounded by a fort. The fortification of the capital was needed for the maintenance of its border forces and economic resources for the officials.

(iii) Approximately in the 6th century B.C.E., the Brahmans started composing a religious book in Sanskrit called Dharamshastras. In it, the rules were determined for all social sections including the king. It was also expected that all the rulers should be Khastriyas.

(iv) The main job of the rulers was to collect tax from the farmers, merchants and craftsmen. They also accepted offerings.

(v) It was legitimate to attack the neighbouring countries to raise money from them.

(vi) Slowly and steadily, some states started keeping their regular armed forces and other officials whereas other states were still dependent on assistant armies. The soldiers were often recruited from the farmers.

Question 3.
How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people ?
Answer:
Common masses or ordinary people left behind very few written information about their lives. That is why historians have to use different types of sources to reconstruct the lives of ordinary people. Following are some of tlfe given resources :

• Different types of foodgrains and animal bones have been found during the excavation. It gives us information about the dietry practices of the people.
• Remains of houses and pots inform us about their daily and household life.
• There is a mention of different types of crafts and craftsmen on certain inscriptions. It is a very good source of knowing about the economic life of people.
• Some inscriptions and scriptures inform us about king-subject relations, different types of taxes and miseries or happiness of people.
• Changing agricultural tools and equipments throw some light on changing life of the ordinary people.
• Merchant guilds indicate towards protection of interests of producers.
• Historians also use famous folk tales to get information about the life of common masses.

Question 4.
Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan Chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do you notice any similarities or differences ?
Answer:
The gifts given to Pandyan Chief include things like ivory, fragrant wood, fans made from the hair of deer, honey, sandalwood, red ochre, antimony, turmeric, cardamom, pepper, etc. Except these, mangoes, coconut, medicinal plants, fruits, onions, sugarcanes, flowers, areca nut, bananas and many birds and animals were also given as gifts.

Contrary to it, things produced in the village of Danguna include grass, skin of animals, charcoal, salt and other minerals, fermenting liquors, produces of khadira tree, flowers and milk.

Similarities : Except flowers, there is no similarity between both the lists. Probably the Pandyan kings could have used animal skin like the people of Danguna village.

Differences : Many differences have been found in both the lists. The main difference is the method of obtaining these things. People used to willingly and happily give gifts to the Pandyan chiefs. On contrary to it, before land grants, people of Danguna village had to give these things to the State and its officials because it was their duty.

Question 5.
List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.
Or
Give any two limitations of inscriptional evidence to construct the past. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Or
Critically examine the limitations of the inscriptional evidences in understanding political and economic history of India. (C.B.S.E 2015 (D))
Or
Describe the limitations of the inscriptional evidences. (C.B.S.E 2016 (D))
Answer:
The scholars who study the inscriptions were often very wise people. They faced the following problems :

• Sometimes the words are engraved in very light colours. It is very hard to decipher them.
• Sometimes the inscriptions are damaged. Many words are lost due to this damage.
• It is always not easy to find out the real meaning of the inscription. Sometimes the things are stated in relevance to a particular situation or time.
• Thousands of inscriptions have been found. But not all of them can be translated or understood.
• There might have been many more inscriptions. It is possible that many of them would have been damaged. These inscriptions which are available may be a part of many more which have already been damaged.
• There is another basic problem. What is important today both politically and economically may not have been mentioned in the inscriptions. For example, the inscriptions do not refer to agriculture and the joys or sorrows of daily life. They describe only special and grand occasions.
• The inscriptions reflect the views of those who write them. So we must critically analyse all the inscriptions to find out the ultimate truth.

Question 6.
Discuss the main features of the Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in the Ashokan inscriptions that you have studied?
Or
Examine the system of Mauryan administration. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Or
Explain the main features of the Mauryan administration. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Or
Describe any four features of the Mauryan administration. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))
Answer:
Ashokan inscriptions mention all the main features of the Mauryan administration like king- subjects relationships, political centres, important officers and their duties, etc. Same sort of messages were engraved on inscriptions found in western frontier province of modern Pakistan, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Uttarakhand and other places. Some of the main features evident in the Ashokan inscriptions and few others are given below :

(i) Five main Political Centres: Largest political centre of the Mauryan empire was its capital, i.e., Pataliputra. Apart from this, there is a mention of four provincial centres in Ashokan inscriptions. These four centres were Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvamagiri.

(ii) Unequal Administrative System : The Mauryan empire was quite large and included areas in the empire that were of different types like mountaineous region of Afghanistan and coastal areas of Odisha. It was not possible to establish an equal or same administrative system in such a diverse empire. But probably strict administrative control could have been there in capital of empire and other provincial centres.

(iii) Selection of Provincial Centres : Provincial centres were selected very carefully. Taxila and Ujjayini were situated on important trading routes of long journey. Suvarnagiri was important for the gold mines of Karnataka.

(iv) Providing Easy Communication : Communication along both land and riverine routes was vital for the existence of empire. It took weeks or months to reach provinces from the capital. It is obvious that arrangement of diet and protection of people moving through the routes could have been an important issue.

(v) Committee and Sub-Committees : Megasthenes mentioned about one committee and six sub-committees for coordinating the military activities.

• First sub-committee looked after the navy.
• The second managed transport and provisions.
• The third sub-committee was responsible for infantry.
• The fourth was responsible for horses, the fifth for chariots and sixth for elephants.

Activities of second sub-committee were little bit varied. It arranged for bullockcarts to carry equipments, procuring fodder for animals and food for soldiers and recruiting artisans and servants to look after the soldiers. :

(vi) Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras : Ashoka tried to maintain unity within his empire. He did this by propagating Dhamma. Concepts of Dhamma were very simple and universal. He was of the view that obeying the Dhamma will be good for people in this world and beyond this world. That is why special officers called Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed. This activity is also mentioned in his inscriptions.

Question 7.
This is a statement made by one of the best known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar : “There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss.
Answer:
A famous exponent of inscriptions, D.C. Sircar has rightly said that the inscriptions present a glimpse of every aspect of the Indian life. Regarding it, many examples can be cited, a few of which are as follows:

(i) Determination of State Expansion : From the inscriptions, we come to know a lot about the expansion of states by the kings. The ancient kings got installed the inscriptions within the borders of their states. Hence, the areas where inscriptions were found are believed to be the part of his state.

(ii) Names of Kings : From the inscriptions, we also come to know about the names of various kings. Earlier we were unable to know these names from any other source. For example, many titles like Devanampiya (beloved of the Gods) and Piyadassi (pleasant to behold) were used for king Ashoka. All these names are known from the inscriptions installed by him.

(iii) Information about Historical Events : We also know a lot about historical events from the inscriptions. All the major events in the life of Samudragupta can be known from Allahabad Prashasti. The inscriptions of Ashoka throw light on the Kalinga war and its grave consequences. Similarly we know a lot about the ups and downs in the life of Chandragupta Vikramaditya, Raja Bhoj, Pulkeshin-II from various inscriptions.

(iv) Information about the Character of Kings : The inscriptions also present a glimpse about the character of the kings. They tell us that Ashoka was a lover of his subjects. He did a lot for their welfare. All the inscriptions prove him to be a king, protector of animals and lover of the family system. Allahabad Prashasti presents Samudragupta as a great warrior and scholar.

(v) Information About Land Systems and Administration : There are many important inscriptions which tell us about the land donated by the kings and the samants. They provide useful information about the system and administration of land in the ancient India. Most of these inscriptions were written on copper plates. They are found in almost all the ancient languages. They give detailed information about the villages, land and revenue given to the beggars, Brahmanas, Temples, jagirdars and officials.

(vi) Time Line : The inscriptions contribute a lot in determining the historical dates and periods of war. We can determine their time from the script and style of writing on the inscriptions.

(vii) Information about Historical Literature : From the language of the inscriptions we come to know about the level of literature. We also come to know in which parts of the country were spoken languages like Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Tamil and Telugu. The inscriptions also tell us about the status of these languages in the country.

(viii) Information about Languages and Religion : The language of the inscriptions inform us about the religions of those times. In ancient times, Sanskrit language was identified with the Hinduism. Similarly, Prakrit language was associated with Buddhism.

(ix) Information about Love for Art : The inscriptions have been prepared by engraving stones and caves, they tell us about the love for art. The inscriptions of Ashoka are the model of excellence of the Mauryan period.

(x) Information about Social’ Classes : The inscriptions tell us a lot about the social classes of those times. We also come to know that during those times, there were not only the ruling class but also weavers, goldsmiths, washermen, ironsmiths, traders and farmers. Thus, we see that all the inscriptions were the mirror of the Indian life and culture.

Question 8.
Discuss the notions of Kingship that developed in the post-Maiiryan period.
Answer:
The ideas which-were developed about Kingship in the post-Mauryan period had a very distinctive feature and that was ‘Divine Theory of Kingship’. Kings started to associate themselves with Gods and Goddesses to achieve higher status. Kushana rulers, who ruled from Central Asia upto western India, used this method in a better way. Kushana history was reconstructed through inscriptions and literary traditions. The notion of kingship which Kushanas wished to project is perhaps best evidenced in the coins and sculptures.

I. Kushana Rulers :
(i) Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found in Matt near Mathura. Some scholars are of
opinion that Kushanas might have considered themselves God-like. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title of Devaputra. They probably were inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves as sons of heaven.

(ii) A picture of king has been shown on coins of Kushana rulers. There is a picture of a deity on other side of this coin. This type of coins were issued to express their divine status.

II. Gupta Rulers :
(i) Second development in the notion of Kingship took place during the Gupta age. Many evidences of large states have been found by the 4th century including the Gupta empire. Many of these empires depended upon Samantas who were those men who maintained themselves through local resources which included control over land. Samantas respected their kings and provided military support to the rulers. Few powerful Samantas became king as weak rulers were reduced to the position of subordinates.

(ii) Literature, coins and inscriptions were used to reconstruct history of the Gupta rulers. Prashastis were used for this purpose as they were composed in praise of kings or their patrons. While historians generally try to draw facts from these compositions, those who composed and read them generally kept them as works of poets instead of accounts which are really true. For example, we can take the Prayaga Prashasti which is famous by the name of Allahabad Pillar Inscription. Its writer Harisena, described Samudragupta, his patron, as the most powerful Gupta ruler. This type of views express new ideas of Kingship.

Question 9.
To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration ?
Or
Explain the agricultural practices followed by cultivatores to increase productivity from C.600 BCE to 600 CE (C.B.S.E 2017 (O.D.))
Answer:
The demand for taxes by the kings had considerably increased during the period from 600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E. To fulfil this demand for more taxes, the farmers started finding all new means to increase the production of their crops. Consequently following changes took place in the means and methods of agriculture :

(i) Prevalence of Ploughs : One method that helped in increasing the production was the popularity of plough. The use of a plough started in 6th century B.C.E. in the valleys of Ganga and Cauveri. The plough with an iron tip was used in areas which received ample rainfall. It was used in fertile land which resulted in increasing the production of paddy. No doubt the farmers had to work a lot to achieve this target.

(ii) Use of Spade : Though plough helped in increasing the production yet its use was limited to only some areas. In Punjab and Rajasthan, which had less rainfall, the plough was used in the early period of the 20th century. Those farmers who lived in the north-east and mid-mountainous regions, used spade to dig the fields. The spade was quite useful in such areas.

(iii) Artificial Irrigation : Another method to increase the production was artificial irrigation. For this purpose, the wells, tanks and canals were used. These were developed by the people individually. At some places, farmers also joined hands and worked collectively to develop these means of irrigation. However, kings and other dominating elite people developed wells, ponds and canals individually for irrigation of land.

Impact of the new Methods of Agriculture :
The production in the fields increased considerably because of these modern techniques but many differences also emerged among the people because of these new methods. In Buddhist stories, we find a mention of labourers, small farmers and big Zamindars. It shows diverse social classes and the position of different people in the society. In Pali language, the word for small farmers and

Zamindars was Grihapati. The big Zamindars and village chiefs were considered very powerful and strong. They often had a control over small farmers. The post of village chief was often hereditary. The texts of Tamil Sangam also mention different classes of people in the villages. For example, there were Vellalar or big landlords, Halwaha or Ulwar and Das Animal. It is possible that these diverse positions were because of the differences in the ownership of land, labour and new technology. In such a situation, the ownership of land become quite important.

Map Work

Question 1.
Compare Maps 1 and 2, and list the Mahajanapadas that might have been included in the Mauryan empire. Have any Ashokan inscriptions been found in these areas ?


Answer:
Mahajanapadas were mainly expanded in North India. Whole of North India was included in the Mauryan empire. Probably all Mahajanapadas could have been included in Mauryan empire. It can be listed as follows :

• Kamboj
• Kandhar
• Kuru
• Panchala
• Shurasend
• Matsya
• Koshala
• Kashi
• Malla
• Vajji (Vriji)
• Magadha
• Vatsa
• Chedi
• Anga
• Avanti
• Ashmaka (at the banks of river Godavari in south India).

Inscriptions of Ashoka have been found at all these places.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-4/

Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 4

Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 4

Question 1.
Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and materialists ? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer:
Yes, the philosophers of the Upanishads had different perception than that of the fatalists and the materialists. The main points of difference are as follows :

(i) The Views of the Fatalists and the Materialists. The fatalists believed that no one can escape the fruits of one’s Karma. No one can change pleasure or pain in the course of life. They can neither be lessened nor increased. The wise people thought that they can get rid of their Karmas through their noble qualities and meditation. But it is not possible. All men have to face both pleasure and pain. Similarly the materialists do not believe in alms, sacrifice or offerings.

They believe that there is no such thing as this world or the next. A human being is-made up of four elements. When he dies, the earthy part in him returns to the dust. The fluid in him goes to the water. His heat goes to the fire and the windy part in him merges in the air. All his senses pass into space. In other words, nothing remains after death. So the talk of gifts is a doctrine of fools. It is an empty lie.

(ii) The Philosophical Views in the Upanishads. The above mentioned views have no place for soul or God. So according to the Upanishads, the aim of human life is the meeting of the soul with God.

Question 2.
Summarise the central teachings of Jainism. Explain the basic idea of Jain Philosophy. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Or
Describe the message of Lord Mahavira on life and Karma. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Or
“The principle of ahimsa and renunciation emphasised by Jainism has left its mark.” Support the statement with Lord Mahaviira’s I messages. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Answer:
The important teachings of Jainism are as follows :
(i) The entire world is animated. It is believed that even the stones, rocks and water have life.

(ii) No living being should be given any injury. The basic philosophy of Jainism is not to harm or cause injury to human-beings, animals, plants and insects. There is a great emphasis on the principle of ahimsa.

(iii) The cycle of birth and re-birth is shaped through Karma. If one is to escape this cycle of Karma, one must practise asceticism and penance. It is possible if one renounces the world. So one has to live in a monastry to attain salvation.

(iv) Jain monks and nuns used to take five vows such as :

• Not to kill anyone
• Not to steal anything
• Not to tell a lie
• Not to possess property
• To observe celibacy.

Question 3.
Discuss the role of the Begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupas at Sanchi.
Or
“The Begums of Bhopal played a significant role in preserving the remains of Stupa at Sanchi.” Support this statement with a suitable evidence.
Answer:
The contribution of Shahjahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum was praise worthy in the preservation of the stupas at Sanchi. Their contribution can be described as follows:

• They donated money for the up-keep of the Stupas at Sanchi.
• Sultan Jehan Begum contributed a lot of money for the erection of a museum and a Guest House.
• John Marshall lived in that guest house and wrote many books. He dedicated his important books on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan Begum. Thus, the stupas survived due to the wise decisions of the Begums of Bhopal.

Question 4.
Read the short inscription and answer the questions that follow :
In the year 33 of the Maharaja Huvishka (a Kushana ruler), in the first month of the hot season on the eight day, a Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvanaka by the Bhikkhuni Dhanavati, the sister’s daughter of the Bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the Bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka, together with her father and mother.
(a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription ?
(b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta?
(c) Who were the relatives she mentioned ?
(d) What Buddhist text did she know ?
(e) From whom did she learn the text ?
Answer:
(a) Dhanavati dated her inscription with the help of the Maharaja Huvishka, a Kushan ruler. This date was the eighth day of the first month of the hot season during the thirty third year of his rule.
(b) Dhanavati had deep faith in Buddhism which is why, she got the statue of Bodhisatta installed.
(c) She mentioned the name of her maternal aunt Buddhamita, her guru Bhikkhu Bala together with her parents.
(d) She knew the Buddhist texts like Tipitaka.

Question 5.
Why do you think women and men joined the Sangha ?
Answer:
The men and women probably went to the Sanghas due to the following reasons:
(i) They wanted to remain away from the worldly pleasures.

(ii) The life in the Sanghas was simple and disciplined.

(iii) They could deeply study the Buddhist philosophy by staying in the Sanghas.

(iv) Many people entered the Sanghas to become teachers of Dhamma. They went on to become theris or respected women who had attained liberation.

(v) All were considered equal in the Sanghas. There were kings, wealthy men and grihapatis. There were also the humble-folk like the workers, slaves and craftsmen. Nobody had an earlier social identity after becoming a bhikkhu or bhikkhuni.

(vi) The internal functioning of the Sangha was democratic. It emphasised consensus through discussions. If there was no consensus, decisions were taken on the basis of votes.

Question 6.
To what extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi ?
Or
“Buddhist literature needs to be studied to understand the scripture at Sanchi and other places.” Justify the statement with examples. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Answer:
Art historians had to acquire familarity with hagiographies of the Buddha to understand the sculptures of Buddha. Hagiographies describe that the Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating sitting under a tree. Many early sculptors tried to show Buddha’s presence through symbols instead of showing him in human form. For example, the empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha and Stupa became symbol of mahaparinibbana.

Symbol of wheel was also used quite frequently. Wheel stood for the first sermon of the Buddha delivered at Sarnath. Actually, such sculptures literally are very difficult to understand. For example, the tree does not stand for a tree alone, but it was a symbol of an event in the life of the Buddha. In order to understarid such symbols, historians need to understand the traditions of those who produced these works of art.

Popular Traditions: Probably many sculptures of Sanchi were not associated with Buddhism. They include few sculptures of beautiful women. Those women were shown swinging from the edge of the gateway and holding onto a tree. Initially, scholars were intrigued about importance of this sculpture because there hardly seem any relation of sculpture with renunciation. But after examining other literary traditions, they realised that this is a sulpture of Shalabhanjika described in Sanskrit language. According to popular belief, this Shalabhanjika was a woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruits.

This Shalabhanjika motif suggests that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre Buddhist and even non-Buddhist beliefs, practices and ideas. Some of the motifs used in sculptures of Sanchi were definitely originated from these traditions. For example, some of the beautiful depictions of animals were found here.

These animals include elephant, horses, monkeys and cattles. Probably these animals were depicted to attract the people. Also, animals were used as symbols of human attributes. For example, elephant was considered as a symbol of strength and wisdom.

Another motif of a women is shown surrounded by lotuses and elephants. Elephants are sprinkling water on her as if they are performing consecration. Few historians consider it as Maya, the mother of the Buddha and others indentify her as a popular goddess, Gajalakshmi. Gajalakshmi is the goddess of good fortune and is associated with elephants. It is quite possible that devotees who saw these sulptures identified the figure with both Maya and Gajalakshmi.

The serpent are found on several pillars. This motif is probably being taken from popular traditions which were not always recorded in texts. Interesting thing is that one modem historian James Ferguson has considered Sanchi as a centre of trees and serpent worship. Probably he was unfamiliar with Buddhist literature because most of them had not been translated during his time. They probably arrived at this conclusion by studying only the images on their own.

Question 7.
Picture Based Questions
Answer:
Do it yourself.

Question 8.
Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
Answer:
Vaishnavism was a form of Hinduism. It believed in the worship of Vishnu as the principal deity. Similary, Shaivism is a tradition of Hinduism in which Shiva is regarded as the chief God. In such worship, the emphasis was laid on Bhakti, that is, the bond between the devotee and the God was the one of love and devotion. Architecture. When the Stupas at Sanchi developed, the temples also came into existence.

These temples were built to house images of gods and goddesses. The early temple was a small square room known as the garbhagriha. It had a single door-way from which the worshipper entered to worship the idol. Slowly and steadily a tall structure was built on the garbhagriha. It was known as the Shikhara. The walls of these temples were decorated with sculpture. But the later temples had an elaborate structure. They had assembly halls, huge walls, big gateways and arrangements for the supply of water.

Most of these temples were carved out of huge rocks. The tradition of building artificial caves was quite old. In the 3rd century B.C.E., many such caves were built for those who renounced the world and for those who belonged to the Ajivika sect, on the orders of king Ashoka. This tradition continued developing. Its most developed form can be seen in the Kailashnatha Temple of the 3th century. It was carved out of the single piece of rock. A copper plate inscriptions showed the amazement of the chief sculptor when he completed the temple at Ellora. He expressed his wonder saying: “Oh, how did I make it!”

Sculpture. Many avataras have been shown as idols. Such idols have also been made of other gods. Shiva has been shown in the lingum form. But in many other images, Shiva has been shown in human form. All these images were based on the depiction of gods. Many sculptures of gods and goddesses were grotesque figures as they had multiple arms and hands. They also had a combination of human and animal forms.

Question 9.
Discuss how and why stupas were built.
Or
Describe the structure of Stupa with examples. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Or
Describe the structure of the Stupa and give any two examples of important stupas. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (O.D.))
Or
Trade out how Stupas were built. (C.B.S.E. 2018)
Or
Describe the magnificent features of the sculpture of Sanchi Stupa. (CJB.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))
Answer:
From the earliest times, people considered the Stupas as pious and sacred. These Stupas had special trees, unique rocks and awe-inspiring beauty. They also had small shrines attached to them. They were sometimes called as Chaityas.There are several Chaityas in the Buddhist literature. There is also the description of many places associated with the Buddha. For example, we find Lumbini where the Buddha was born, Bodh Gaya where Buddha attained enlightenment,

Sarnath where the Buddha delivered his first sermon and Kusinagar where Buddha attained nirvana. All these places came to be regarded as sacred by the Buddhists. About 200 years after the time of the Buddha, king Ashoka erected a pillar at Lumbini to mark the fact that the Buddha had visited this place.

(i) Why were Stupes Built ?
Answer:
The Stupas were the mounds where the bodily remains or objects used by the Buddha were buried. So all these Stupas were regarded as sacred. Though Stupas have been there even before the Buddha, yet, they are mainly associated with Buddhism. They are venerated as emblems of Buddhism as they contain the sacred relics of the Buddha. According to Ashokavadana, a Buddhist text, Ashoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to all important cities. He ordered the construction of Stupas over these relics. The important Stupas of Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath had been built by the second century B.C.E.

(ii) The Complex Structure of Stupas
Answer:
The Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap. It is a simple semi-circular mound of earth. Later on it was also called as anda. Slowly and steadily, its structure became complex because an attempt was made to balance the round and square shapes. Above the anda, it had the harmika, a balcony like structure. This balcony represented the abode of the gods.

Near the harmika, was a mast called the Yashti. It was often surmounted by a Chhatri or umbrella. Around the mound, there was a railing. It separated the sacred place from the secular world. The Stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut have stone railings. This railing was like a bamboo or wooden fence. It had four gateways. The worshippers mostly entered through the eastern gateway. They walked around the mound in a clockwise direction.

(iii) Money for the Construction of the Stupas
A lot of donation poured in for the construction and decoration of the Stupas. The kings like Satavahanas offered huge amounts. Similarly the guilds and the ivory workers financed part of one of the gateways at Sanchi. Besides hundreds of men and women also

donated for this purpose. They mentioned their names along with the place from where they had come. They also mentioned their occupations and names of their relatives. The Bikkhus and the Bhikkhunis also contributed a lot for the construction of these monuments.