CBSE Class 12

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-3/

Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3

Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 3

Question 1.
Explain why patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families.
Answer:
Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son’ grandson and so on. The elite families included the royal families or the families of the rich. The principle of patriliny would have been essential for them on account of the following reasons:

(i) To Carry Forward the Dynasty : According to Dharamshastras, it is the son who carries forward the dynasty and daughters cannot do so. That is why, all the families wish for sons and not daughters. This also becomes clear from a couplet of Rig Veda. In this couplet, the father wishes for, at the time of the marriage of his daughter that she should bear best sons with the grace of Lord Indra.

(ii) To Escape from Disputes Concerning Inheritance : The parents did hot like that there should be disputes in their family after their death. In the royal families, the acquisition of throne was also included in the inheritance. After the death of the king, his eldest son was entitled to inherit the throne. Similarly the property of the parents was equally divided among all the sons after the death of their parents. Most of the royal families followed the patriliny since 600 B.C.E. No doubt, this tradition had a diversity.

  • If there was no son, the brother of the king sat on the throne.
  • Sometimes the relatives put forward their claim to sit on the royal throne.
  • In some special situations, the women like Prabhavati enjoyed the authority.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

Question 2.
Discuss whether kings in early states were invariably Kshatriyas.
Answer:
According to the Dharamshastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. However many important ruling lineages perhaps had different origins. Some people considered the Mauryas to be Kshatriyas. But some Brahmanical texts described them to be of low origin. The Shungas and Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas. In fact, the political power went in the hands of those who could had support and resources. It did not depend on birth as a Kshatriya.

There were other rulers like Shakas who came from Central Asia. But the Brahmans considered them as Mlechchhas, barbarians and outsiders. Similarly, Gotami-puta Siri Satakani, the best known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, became a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas. Thus, we see that the Satavahanas claimed to be BrShmanas whereas according to the Brahmanas, the kings should be Kshatriyas.

Question 3.
Compare and contrast the dharma or norms mentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba and Matanga.
Answer:
Drona. Drona was a Brahmana teacher. He taught archery to princes of the Kuru dynasty. According to Dharamshastras, imparting education was the pious deed of the Brahmanas. In this way, Drona was performing his duty. At that time, the low caste people could not get an education and therefore he refused Eklavya to have him as his pupil.

As Eklavya had acquired a great skill in archery, Drona demanded his right thumb as his fee though it was against the religious norms. It means that at last Drona had accepted Eklavya as his pupil. In fact, Drona did such a low act just to keep his word that no one was better archer than Arjuna.

Hidimba. Hidimba was a rakshasani (ogress). All rakshasas were man-eaters except Hidimba. One day her brother asked her to capture the Pandavas so that he may eat them. But she did not follow her religion and fell in love with Bhima and married him. She gave birth to a rakshasa boy named Ghatotkacha. Thus, she did not keep up the norms of rakshasas. Matanga. Matanga was a Boddhisatta. He had taken birth in the house of a Chandala but married

Dittha Mangalika, the daughter of a merchant. After some time, a son named Mandavya Kumara was bom to them. As he grew up, he learnt the three Vedas. He offered food to 16,000 Brahmanas every day. However he refused to offer food to his father, when he, dressed in rags, reached at his door steps with a clay alms bowl in his hand.

He considered his father like an outcaste and claimed him to be unworthy of his alms. He said that his food was meant only for the Brahmanas. Matanga advised his son that he should not be proud of his birth. Then he rose in the air and disappeared. When Dittha Mangalika came to know about this incident, she went after Matanga and begged his forgiveness.

She acted like a true wife and performed her duty religiously. There was a tinge of pride in the behaviour of Mandavya. A donor is often generous. But Mandavya did not follow the norms of religion and generosity.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

Question 4.
In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha Sukta.
Answer:
According to the Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda, the four Vamas emerged because of the sacrifice of Purusha, the primeval man. These Varnas were Brahamans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the fourth Varna. These Varnas had different jobs. The Brahmanas enjoyed the supreme position in the society. They used to study Dharam Shastras.

They also taught others. The Kshatriyas were brave warriors who ran the administration and administered justice. The Vaishyas were engaged in trade and agriculture. The fourth Varna was destined to serve the above three Vamas. So there was inequality in the society. In this system, the birth of a person was the basis of his/her status and prestige in the society.

The Buddhist concept was contrary to this Brahmanical notion. They accepted that there was an inequality in the society. But according to them, this inequality was neither natural nor permanent. They also rejected birth as the base of social prestige.

Question 5.
The following is an excerpt from the Mahabharata in which Yudhisthira, the eldest Pandava, speaks to Sanjay, a messenger :
Sanjaya, convey my respectful greetings to all the Brahmanas and the chief priest of the house of Dhritarashtra. I bow respectfully to teacher Drona …………………. I hold the feet of our preceptor Kripa…… (and) the chief of the Kurus, the great Bhishma. I bow respectfully to the old king (Dhritarashtra). I greet and ask after the health of his son Duryodhana and his younger brothers ……………… Also greet all the young Kuru warriors who are our brothers, sons and grandsons ……………… Greet above all him, who is to us like father and mother, the wise Vidura (born of a slave woman) ………………. I bow to the elderly ladies who are known as our mothers. To those who are our wives you say this, “I hope they are well- protected.” …………….. Our daughters-in-law born of good families and mothers of children greet on my behalf. Embrace for me those who are our daughters ………… The beautiful, fragrant, well- dressed courtesans of ours, you should also greet. Greet the slave women and their children, greet the aged, the maimed (and) the helpless. Try and identify the criteria used to make this list in terms of age, gender, kinship ties. Are there any other criteria? For each category, explain why they are placed in a particular position in the list.
Answer:
Besides age, gender, and kinship ties, there are many other bases to make this list. For example, the respect for teachers, brave warriors, slaves and their sons. All these have been given a due place in the list keeping in mind their social status :

  • First of all, the highest honours have been bestowed on the Brahmans, the Purohits and the Gurus who were all widely respected.
  • Secondly, respect has been shown to fraternal kins who are also like parents.
  • Thereafter those have been placed who are younger or equal in age.
  • In this order, the young Kuru warriors have been respected.
  • After this, the women have been given the due place. In this order come the mothers, wives, daughters-in-law and daughters. They also include beautiful dasis and their sons.
  • The orphans and handicapped have also not been ignored. Yudhisthira also salutes or greets them.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

Question 6.
This is what a famous historian of Indian literature, Maurice Winternitz, wrote about he Mahabharata : “Just because the Mahabharata represents more of an entire literature… and contains so mush and so many kinds of things, (it) give (s) us an insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk.” Discuss.

Answer:
There is no denying the fact that Mahabharata represents whole of literature and shows a very beautiful picture of all the aspects of public life of contemporary Indian folk. This epic thrws the following lights on the life of Indians :
(i) Social Life

(a) Four Varbas : Society was divided into four Varnas and Varna system was not strict. There was no restriction on people to adopt their hereditary occupation. For example, Parshuram was known as a Kshatriya even if he was Brahmana. Brahman’s place in the society was not supreme.

(b) Status of Women : Women had very good status in the society. They were highly respected. They had the right to select their husband through the custom of ‘Suyamuas’.

(c) Age of Courage : Age of Mahabharata was an age of volour and bravery. Dying in the battlefield was considered very prestigeous. People believed that one who dies in the battlefield goes straight to heaven. Protection of weaker sections was also considered as an act of bravery.

(d) Social Evils : Some social evils also existed in the society. Playing the game of dice, endogamy, polygamy, betraying the enemy were common things that prevailed in the society.

(ii) Political Life :
(a) Large empires : King was the head of the state and all the power of the state rested in his hands. There was no restricion on these powers. However there were ministers to advice the king in administrative functions but the kings were not bound to accept their advice.

(b) Life of Kings : Kings used to live with great pomp and show. They had splendid palaces and used to adopt many titles. They had an ambition to become Chakravarti King. For this, they used to organise Ashvamedha yajna. There were many dancers in their courts. Drinking liquor and gambling were a part of their characters.

(iii) Economic Life :
(a) Agriculture : Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Even kings themselves used to plough the land. Land was very fertile.

(b) Animal Rearing: Animal rearing was another occupation of the people. Cow, bull, horses and elephants were important rearing animals.

(iv) Religious Life :

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

(a) Worshipping New Gods and Goddesses :
In Mahabharata age, people started to worship new gods and goddesses, except Vedic gods and goddesses, and some of them were Parvati, Durga, Vishnu, Brahma, etc.

(b) Believe in Incarnation : People also belived that god takes birth. It was believed that god Vishnu took birth in the form of Lord Rama and Lord Krishna and people started to worship them them as well.

(c) Karma theory and Reincarnation : People also believed in Karma theory and reincarnation. They believed that one has to face all of his good or bad deeds of this life in his next life or birth.

(d) Stress on Yajnas : People in this epic age greatly stressed on Yajnas. Many new methods of yajnas were started in this age.
Actually, like any other epic, Mahabharata in an epic which shows a live picture of wars, forests, palaces and towns. Culturally also Mahabharata is very important. This epic has given a content to sculptors, plays and dance forms.

Question 7.
Discuss whether the Mahabharata could have been the work of a single author.
Or
Who composed the original story of Mahabharata ? Describe the various stages through which Mahabharata was completed between the fifth century BCE. and 100 CE. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (CD), 2014 (D))
Or
What do you know about the authors and the period when Mahabharata was compiled ? (C.B.S.E. 2017 (O.D.))
Answer:
It is not possible for a single author to compose the entire Mahabharata. It seems to have been composed between 500 B.C.E. to 100 C.E. As a result, many episodes have been incorporated in it from time to time. Some of the stories mentioned in it were already popular among the people. As Mahabharata was written in a very long time, it seems as if no single author would have written it.

Different Authors
The following suggestions are given regarding the authors of Mahabharata :
(i) The original story of Mahabharata was written by Bhatt-Sarthis. They were called as Sutas. They generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield. So they composed poems to celebrate the victories and achievements of various warriors. These compositions were circulated through oral method.

(ii) From the 5th century B.C.E., the Brahmanas took over the story and began to write it in the form of an epic. The story moved around the Kurus. As the Kurus and Panchalas had attained kingdom from chiefdom, it is possible that these new kings might have wanted their history to be recorded and preserved in a more systematic way. Besides, old social values were replaced by new norms. So it is possible that such upheavals might have necessitated the re-writting of the epic story.

(iii) Another phase in the composition of the epic task of Mahabharta started between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E. This was the time when the worship of Vishnu was becoming quite important. Krishna who was one of the most important characters in the epic, was identified with Vishnu.

(iv) Therefore between 200 and 400 C.E., many didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added in the main story. Originally the text of Mahabharata had 10,000 verses. But after addition of didactic section, it comprised of 1,00,000 verses.

(v) However the enormous composition of Mahabharata is traditionally attributed to Vyasa, a famous sage.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

Question 8.
How important were gender differences in early societies? Give reasons for your answer.
Or
State whether gender differences were really important in the early societies from C. 600 BCE to 600 CE. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (O.D))
Or
“Brahmanical texts reinforced gender access to property in the early societies.” Analyse the statement with examples.
(C.B.S.E. 2019 (Comp.))
Or
Describe the ideal of patriliny and Gendered access to property prevailing during 6th century B.C.E. to 6th century C.E. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (D.))
Answer: There were three main reasons of gender differences in early societies and these were :
(i) Gender inequality, patrilineal system
(ii) Gotra of woman
(iii) Right over property

(i) Gender inequality : Earlier societies were male dominated and were run according to the patrilineal system. That is why male child was desired in every type of family as sons were important for the continuity of the partilineage. Daughters were viewed rather differently in this system. They had no right over ancestral resources. They were expected to marry out of their gotras. This custom of marriage is known as ‘exogamy’. It means that young girls and women of reputed families were regulated in a way that they could marry at right time and with right person. This gave rise to the belief that Kanyadana was an important religious duty of the father.

(ii) Gotra of Women : From C. 1000 B.C.E. onwards, people were classified into gotras by Brahamanas. Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer as all the members of that gotra were assumed as the descendants of that seer. There were two important rules of gotras:

(a) Woman had to adopt gotra of her husband after her marriage.

(b) Members of same gotra could not marry with each other. But some evidences have been found in which these rules were not obeyed. For example, some of the Satavahana rulers had more than one wife (polygamy). A study of the names of wives of Satavahana rulers revealed that a few of them had names derived from gotras such as Gotama and Vasistha which were their father’s gotras.

They probably had retained these names instead of adopting names of their husbands gotras. Some women also belonged to the same gotra as of their husbands. This fact was against the rules of exogamy. This fact actually exemplified an alternative practice that of endogamy or marriage within the kin group. This type of marriage still exists in many communities of South India. These sorts of marital relations give strength to organised communities.

Satavahana rulers were identified through the names derived from that of the mother. Although this may suggest that mothers were important but we should note down the fact that succession to the throne, among Satavahanas, was generally patrilineal.

(iii) Access to Property : According to Manusmriti, ancestral property of parents should be distributed (after their death) equally among all the sons. But eldest son should be given special share. Women could not demand their share in these ancestral resources. But they had the right over the gifts given to them at the time of their marriage. It was known as stridhana or woman’s wealth. This wealth could be inherited by her children. Their husbands had no right over this wealth. But Manusmriti restricts women to secretly collect any valuable goods or familial property without the permission of their husbands.

Some evidences indicate that yet women of upper class had resources within their reach but still land, animals and wealth were under the control of males. In other words, social differences among men and women were increased because of the difference in access of resources or property.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

Question 9.
Discuss the evidences that suggest that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and marriage were not universally followed.
Or
Describe the rules of marriage during the period C. 600 B.C.E. — 600 C.E. I (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Or
“Because of the diversity of the Indian subcontinent there have always ” been population whose social practices were not influenced by the I Brahminical ideas during 600 B.C.E. — 600 C.E. Examine the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D)
Answer:
The Brahmans considered their view-point as universally accepted. They believed that their rules were followed every where. But in reality, it was not so. In fact, there was no universal impact of the Brahmanas because of regional diversities and lack of proper communication. In other words, we can say that the rules framed by the Brahmanas were not adhered every where. The following evidences have been found in this regard:

(i) Diversity in Family Life. We accept family life usually with ease. But all families are not the same. There is always diversity in human relations and activities. In reality, family is a part of a big group. It is a part of larger network of people defined as relatives or kinfolk. However, the familial ties are natural as they are based on blood relations. For example, such relations are kept in different ways. Some societies regard cousins as blood relatives whereas others do not think so.

We can know a lot about elite families. But it is very difficult to have a full view of the relationships of ordinary people. The historians have made efforts to analyse and examine attitude towards family and kinship. The Mahabharata is a story of a war between two groups of cousins, i.e., the Kauravas and the Pandavas. This war was fought for land and power. It was fought for eighteen days in which the Pandavas emerged victorious.

(ii) Rules of Marriage. The sons were considered important to continue the patrilineage. So the daughters had no claims to the resources of the household. They were married into families outside the kin. This system was called exogamy which literally meant marrying outside one’s kin or gotra. The women of high status families were married to the right persons at right time. Thus, Kanayadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.

As the new towns emerged, the social life became more complex. The people bought and sold their products in the cities. So they shared the views with each other. Hence the Brahmanas laid down codes of social behaviour in great detail. They expected all the Brahmanas in particular and the others in general to follow these rules. Later on, these rules were enshrined in Dharamashastras.

These texts recognised eight forms of marriage out of which four were considered as good and the other four were considered as condemnable. The condemnable marriages were solemnised by those who did not accept Brahmanical norms. Inscriptions of Satavahana rulers indicate that they did not followed the method of exogamy of Brahmanas. They had many queens and even from their own gotra. This fact is an example of endogamy method or marital relations within kinfolk.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

Map Work

Question 10.
Compare the map in this chapter with Map I in Chapter 2. List the Mahajanapadas and cities located near the Kuru-Panchala lands.
Answer:
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies
Indications – Mahajanapadas: Malla, Koshala, Sakya, Avanti, Matsya, Shurasena Cities : Hastinapur, Indraprastha, Mathura, Virata, Kaushambi,Sarnath, Varanasi, Ayodhya, Bodh Gaya, Pataliputra, Vaishali, Kushinagara, Pava, Lumbini, Kapilavastu, Shravasti and Ujjayini

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies Read More »

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-6/

Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 6

Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 6

Question 1.
Explain with examples what historians mean by the integration of cults.
Answer:
Many historians have tried to understand the integration of cults. They found that there were at least two processes at work. First of all, there was a process of disseminating Brahmanical ideas. For example, all the Puranic texts were composed, compiled and preserved in simple Sanskrit verse. It was done so that they may be accessible to all women and the Shudras who were generally excluded from Vedic learning. Secondly, the Brahmans accepted and reworked the beliefs and practices of these and other social categories. They were engaged in a continuous dialogue between great Sanskritic Puranic traditions and little traditions throughout the land.

For example, at Puri in Orissa, the principal deity of  Vishnu was identified as Jagannatha which meant ‘Lord of the World’. The terms of great and little traditions were coined by Robert Redfield, a sociologist of the 20th century. Such examples of integration can also be seen in the cults of goddesses.

The goddess was often worshipped in the form of a stone smeared with ochre. These local deities were usually incorporated within the Puranic framework by providing them with an identity as a wife of the principal male deities. For example, Lakshmi is associated with Vishnu as his wife and Parvati with Shiva as his wife.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts

Question 2.
To what extent do you think the architecture of mosques in the sub- continent reflects a combination of universal ideas and local traditions ?
Answer:
The Muslim rulers in the sub-continent got many mosques built. Their architecture was a complex blend of a universal faith and local traditions. Most of the features of these mosques are universal. They had a special orientation towards Mecca. It was evident from the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit).

But there were also many variations in their architecture. These variations can be seen in the roofs and the building materials. For example, a mosque was built in Kerala in the 13th century. Its roof resembled the Shikhar of the temple. Contrary to it, the roof of Atia Mosque in Bangladesh is round. The Atia Mosque was made of bricks. However the Kashmiri wood has been used in Shah Hamdan Mosque built in Srinagar on the banks of Jhelum river.

Question 3.
What were the similarities and dissimilarities between be-sharia and ba-sharia Sufi tradition ?
Answer:
There were some mystics in the Islam religion. They gave radical interpretation of the Sufi ideals. Many of them hated the Khanqah. They took to mendicancy and observed celibacy. They ignored rituals and adopted asceticism in their lives. They were known by different names such as Qulandars, Madaris, Malangi and Haidaris. They deliberately defined the sharia. So they were often called as be- sharia. On the other hand, the ba-sharia Sufis were those Sufis who complied with the ideas of Islam. However, both kinds of people belonged to Islam.

Question 4.
Discuss the ways in which the Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas expressed critiques of the caste system.
Answer:
Alvars and Nayanars were the Bhakts or Saints of Tamil Nadu. The Alvars were devoted to Vishnu whereas Nayanars were the devotees of Shiva. They travelled from place to place and sang hymns in praise of their gods. They built many temples at sacred places. Later on, these temples developed into centres of pilgrimage.

(i) Some historians stated that the Alvars and Nayanars started a movement against the caste system. They protested against the dominance of Brahmans and wanted to reform the caste system. That is why, all the Bhakats belonged to different castes and social strata of life. They ranged from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators to untouchables.

(ii) The compositions of Alvars and Nayanars were as important as the Vedas. Their main anthology of compositions was the Nalayira Divyaprabandham which was described as the Tamil Veda. In other words, this work of the Alvars was considered as important as the Vedas.

(iii) The Virashaivas belonged to Karnataka and were the followers of Basavanna. They challenged the Brahmanical social order and their idea of caste. They also opposed the pollution attributed to certain groups of Brahmanas.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts

Question 5.
Describe the major teachings of either Kabir or Guru Nanak, and the ways in which these have been transmitted.
Or
Explain the teachings of Kabir. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Or
Describe briefly the message and teachings of Baba Guru Nanak. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Or
‘Kabir was and is to the present a source of inspiration for those who questioned entrenched social institutions and ideas in their search for divine’. Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Or
“Kabir is perhaps one of the most outstanding examples of a poet-saint of 14th-15th centuries.” Substantiate the statement with reference to his description of ultimate reality. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))
Or
Explain giving examples the traditions and philosophy of Baba Guru Nanak Dev. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (D))
Kabir had an important place among all the poet-saints. His teachings are as follows

  • He described the ultimate reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir. He also used terms like alakh (the unseen) and nirakar (the formless). These words were drawn from Vedantic traditions.
  • He repudiated idol-worship and polytheism.
  • He emphasised the Sufi concept of zikr and ishq (love) to express the Hindu practices of nam- smaran (remembrance of God’s name).
  • He believed that God was one though his names are different.
  • He referred to God as formless.
  • He stated that salvation can be attained through Bhakti.
  • He opposed the religious rituals of both Hindus and Muslims.
  • He was against caste discriminations.

Expression of views

Kabir expressed his views in the language that was spoken and understood by the common people. After his death, the* followers spread his views through various means of communication. From here it is quite clear that Kabir was a source of inspiration for those who questioned entrenched social institutions and ideas in their search for divine.
Guru Nanak Dev Ji and his teachings : Guru Nanak Dev Ji was born in 1469, at Nankana Sahib near the River Ravi. This place is now in Pakistan. He was born in a Hindu family and learnt Persian, Arabic, Hindi and Mathematics. He was married at a very young age. However he remained aloof from this mundane world and travelled widely. He spent most of his time in the company of Sufi saints and Bhaktas. His main teachings are as follows :

  • He advocated nirguna bhakti. He firmly repudiated and rejected the religious practices like sacrifices, ritual baths, idol worship and austerities.
  • He rejected the scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims.
  • He stated that the Almighty had no gender or form.
  • He proposed that all his followers should connect to the Divine by remembering and repeating the Divine Name.

In fact, Guru Nanak Dev Ji expressed his ideas through hymns called ‘shabads’. He expressed all his views in Punjabi, the language of the region. He recited his ‘shabads’ in various ragas.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts

Question 6.
Discuss the major beliefs and practices that characterised Sufism.
Answer:
In the early centuries of Islam, a group of religious minded people turned to asceticism and mysticism and were called as Sufis. Major beliefs and practices of Sufism are given below :

(i) Sufis criticised the dogmatic definitions and scholistic methods of interpreting the Quran and Sunna (traditions of the Prophet) given by theologians. Sufis, thus, interpreted the Quran on the basis of their personal experiences.

(ii) They gave emphasis on seeking salvation through great devotion and bhakti of God.

(iii) They regarded Prophet Muhammad as a perfect human being and preached to follow the Prophet Muhammad.

(iv) They were in favour of zikr, sama, singing, dance and training of mind, through different methods under the guidance of any Auliya or Pir.

(v) They gave stress on mendicancy and celibacy. They ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism.

(vi) They used to go for Ziyqmt, to tombs of Sufi saints. Music and dance were also parts of Ziyarat. The Sufis remember God either by reciting the divine names or evoking his presence through Sama or performance of mystical music. Sama was integral to the Chishtis, and exemplified interaction with indigenous devotional traditions.

(vii) According to Sufis, God is one and is all-powerful. Everyone is his creation. That is why all are equal.

(viii) According to Sufism service of mankind and needy people is as equal to the devotion of God. That is why a common kitchen (langar) was being run in Khanqah of Shaikh Nizam-ud-din Aulia which was being run on ‘futuh.’ (unasked for charity). From the morning till late night this kitchen was being run to provide food for all sections of the society.

(ix) A major feature of Sufism was austerity including maintaining a distance from worldly power.

Question 7.
Examine how and why rulers tried to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars and the Sufis.
Answer:
Nayanar and Alwar saints had a lot of respect among Vellal peasants. So many rulers tried to get their support. For example, the Chola kings got magnificent temples built to seek divine support. Many stone and metal statues or idols adorned these temples. They gave a concrete shape to the imagery of saint-poets who composed hymns in the language of the common people.

The Chola rulers also started the singing of Shiva hymns in the Tamil language. They also took the responsibility of compiling a new book of bhakti songs. An inscription of 945 C.E. tells us that Chola King Parantak-I got built metalled statue of saint-poet Appa Sambandar and Sundarar in the Shiva Temple. These idols were shown to the people during processions.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts

Sufi saints and rulers

1. Sultan : The Sultans knew that most of his people belonged to Islam. So when the Turks established the Delhi Sultanate, they rejected the demand of Ulma to introduce Shariat. They did so to avoid any kind of opposition from their people who were mainly non- Muslims. So they took the help of Sufi saints who considered their spiritual authority as the blessing of God. They were not dependent on the explanation of Shariat by Ulma.

Some people believed that the Auliya could intercede on behalf of God in order to improve the material and spiritual conditions of the common people. That is why, the kings often wanted to have their tombs in the vicinity of the Sufi shrines. They used to visit the dargahs of Sufi saints. The king who first visited the dargah of Shaikh Muin-ud-din Chishti at Ajmer was Sultan Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq (1324-51). However, the first monument on the tomb of Shaikh was built by King Ghiyas-ud- din Khilji in the fifteenth century. As this dargah was on the road that linked Delhi with Gujarat, it was visited by many travellers.

2. Sufi Saints and Mughal Emperor Akbar :
This dargah at Ajmer had become quite popular in the 16th century. The devotional hymns of those travellers who visited this dargah over the years inspired Emperor Akbar to visit this shrine. Akbar came to this dargah fourteen times. Sometimes he visited this place twice or thrice a year.

Sometimes he visited this dargah to seek blessings for new victory and sometimes he came to seek the fulfilment of his desires. He also visited this holy place on the birthday of his son. Akbar kept this tradition till 1580. He donated a lot on all such occasions. For example in 1568, he donated a big cauldron (death) so that food may be prepared for all the pilgrims. He also got built a mosque in the compound of the dargah.

Question 8.
Analyse, with illustrations, why Bhakti and Sufi thinkers, adopted a variety of languages to express their opinions.
Answer:
The Bhakti and Sufi thinkers used the languages of the common people to express their opinions. They often spoke in local languages which was well-understood by the common people. Had they used a few distinct languages, they would not have reached to all the people and would have gone extinct. Hence, their use of the local languages proved very significant.

  • The Alvars and the Nayanars made use of the Tamil language.
  • Bhakat Kabir wrote his poems mostly in saint language which was the distinct language of the Nirguna poets.
  • The Sufi saints also used the local languages. For example, Baba Farid used the Punjabi language.
  • Guru Nanak Dev Ji also preached in Punjabi language.
  • The Chishtis also adopted the local languages. They conversed in Hindavi, the language of the common people.
  • The poets of Bijapur and Karnataka wrote short poems in Dakhani, a variant of Urdu.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts

Question 9.
Read any five of the sources included in this chapter and discuss the social and religious ideas that are expressed in them.
Answer:
(i) The Chaturvedin Brahmanas were well versed in the four Vedas. They did not keep a devotion of service towards Lord Vishnu. That is why Lord Vishnu loved those servants who expressed their love for their feet.

(ii) Servants or Dasas were not included in the Varna System.

(iii) Brahmanas used to pour milk on a serpent carved in stone. But if a real serpent came they tried to kill him. This thing was also evident in serving food. They used to offer dishes of food to the images of God which cannot eat but they clearly denied to give food to the servant of God who could eat.

(iv) Mughal rulers, especially Akbar, used to respect all the religions and used to protect and patronage them. People of all the religions were allowed to construct their places of worship. Aurangzeb also used to help religious teachers of different sects.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts Read More »

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 6 Spatial Information Technology (Hindi Medium)

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 6 Spatial Information Technology (Hindi Medium)

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 6 Spatial Information Technology (Hindi Medium)

These Solutions are part of NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography. Here we have given NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 6 Spatial Information Technology. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-geography-practical-work-in-geography-chapter-6-hindi/

अभ्यास प्रश्न (पाठ्यपुस्तक से)

प्र० 1. नीचे दिए गए चार विकल्पों में से सही उत्तर को चुनिए।
(i) स्थानिक आंकड़ों के लक्षण निम्नांकित स्वरूप में दिखाई देते हैं।
(क) अवस्थितिक
(ख) रैखिक
(ग) क्षेत्रीय
(घ) उपर्युक्त सभी स्वरूपों में
(ii) विश्लेषक मॉड्यूल सॉफ्टवेयर के लिए कौन-सा एक प्रचालन आवश्यक है?
(क) आंकड़ा संग्रहण
(ख) आंकड़ा प्रदर्शन
(ग) आंकड़ा निष्कर्षण
(घ) बफ़रिंग
(iii) चित्ररेखा पूँज (रैस्टर) आंकड़ा फॉरमेट का एक अवगुण क्या है?
(क) सरल आंकड़ा संरचना
(ख) सहज एवं कुशल उपरिशायी
(ग) सुदूर संवेदन प्रतिबिंब के लिए सक्षम
(घ) कठिन परिपथ चाल विश्लेषण
(iv) भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र कोट में उपयोग कर नगरीय परिवर्तन की पहचान कुशलतापूर्वक की जाती है
(क) उपरिशायी प्रचालन
(ख) सामीप्य विश्लेषण
(ग) परिपथ जाल विश्लेषण
(घ) बफ़रिंग

उत्तर:
(i) (ख) रैखिक
(ii) (घ) बफ़रिंग
(iii) (घ) कठिन परिपथ चाल विश्लेषण
(iv) (ख) उपरिशायी प्रचालन

प्र० 2. निम्नांकित प्रश्नों के उत्तर लगभग 30 शब्दों में दीजिए।
(i) चित्र रेखा पूँज एवं सदिश (वेक्टर) आंकड़ा मॉडल के मध्य अंतर।
उत्तर: चित्ररेखा पूँज (रैस्टर) आंकड़ा फॉर्मेट में आंकड़ों को वर्गों के जाल के प्रारूप में ग्राफिक प्रदर्शन किया जाता है। जबकि सदिश (वैक्टर) आंकड़े वस्तुओं को विशिष्ट बिंदुओं के बीच खींची गई रेखाओं के समुच्चय के रूप में | प्रदर्शित करते हैं।
(ii) उपरिशायी विश्लेषण क्या है?
उत्तर: अधिचित्रण विश्लेषण को उपरिशायी भी कहते हैं? भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र का प्रमाण चिह्न अधिचित्रण प्रचालन है। इस विधि का प्रयोग करके मानचित्रों के बहुगुणी स्तरों को समन्वय एक महत्त्वपूर्ण विश्लेषण क्रिया है। इसमें दो अथवा अधिक विषयक स्तरों का अधिचित्रण करके नया मानचित्र स्तर प्राप्त किया जा सकता है।
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 6 (Hindi Medium) 2
(iii) भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र में हस्तचलित (हस्तेन) विधि के गुण क्या हैं?
उत्तर: भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र में हस्तेन निवेश की चार मुख्य अवस्थाएँ होती हैं
(i) स्थानिक आंकड़ों की प्रविष्टि
(ii) गुण न्यास की प्रविष्टि
(iii) स्थानिक और गुण न्यास का सत्यापन तथा संपादन
(iv) जहाँ आवश्यक हो स्थानिक का गुण न्यास से योजन करना।
आंकड़ा निवेश की हस्तेन विधियाँ इस बात पर निर्भर करती हैं कि सूचनाधार की संस्थिति सदिश (वैक्टर) है। अथवा चित्र रेखापूँज वाली। भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र में स्थानिक आंकड़ों के निवेश की सर्वाधिक प्रचलित विधियाँ अंकरूपण तथा क्रमवीक्षण हैं।
(iv) भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र के महत्त्वपूर्ण घटक क्या हैं?
उत्तर: भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र के महत्वपूर्ण घटक हैं-
(i) हार्डवेयर
(ii) सॉफ्टवेयर
(iii) आंकड़े
(iv) लोग
(v) प्रक्रिया
इन्हें चित्र के माध्यम से भी दर्शाया जा सकता है।
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 6 (Hindi Medium) 2.1
(v) भौगोलिक सूचनातंत्र के कोर में स्थानिक सूचना बनाने की विधि क्या है?
उत्तर: भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र के क्रोड में सर्वाधिक महत्वपूर्ण पूर्व-आवश्यक वस्तु स्थानिक आंकड़े हैं जिन्हें भौगोलिक सूचनातंत्र के क्रोड में अनेक विधियों द्वारा संग्रहित किया जाता है। जैसे
(i) आंकड़ा आपूर्तिदाता से अंकित रूप में आंकड़े प्राप्त करना।
(ii) विद्यमान अनुरूप आंकड़ों का अंकीकरण
(iii) भौगोलिक सत्ताओं का स्वयं सर्वेक्षण करके।
(vi) स्थानिक सूचना प्रौद्योगिकी क्या है?
उत्तर: स्थानिक सूचना प्रौद्योगिकी का संबंध स्थानिक सूचना के संग्रहण, भंडारण, पुनर्घाप्ति, प्रदर्शन हेरफेर, प्रबंधन तथा विश्लेषण में प्रौद्योगिक निवेश के प्रयोग से है। वास्तव में यह सुदूर-संवेदन, वैश्विक स्थिति-निर्धारण तंत्र, भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र, आंकिक मानचित्र कला और सूचनाधार प्रबंध प्रणालियों का सम्मिश्रण है।

प्र० 3. निम्नलिखित प्रश्नों के उत्तर 125 शब्दों में दीजिए।
(i) चित्र रेखा पूँज (रैस्टर) एवं सदिश (वेक्टर) आंकड़ा फॉमेट को उदाहरण सहित समझाइए।
उत्तर: स्थानिक आंकड़ों का प्रदर्शन चित्र रेखा पूँज (रैस्टर) और सदिश (वैक्टर) फार्मेटों द्वारा होता है,
चित्र रेखा पुँज आंकड़ा फॉर्मेट – यह वर्गों के जाल के रूप में आंकड़ों का ग्राफी प्रदर्शन है, इसमें स्तंभों व पंक्तियों का जाल होता है जिसे ग्रिड (Grid) कहते हैं। एक स्तंभ व एक पंक्ति के भेदन स्थल को सेल (cell) कहते हैं। प्रत्येक सेल को एक स्थान दिया जाता है तथा उसके आधार पर ही इसका मूल्य निर्धारित किया जाता है। इसकी पंक्तियों व स्तंभों के निर्देशांक किसी भी व्यक्तिगत पिक्सेल (Pixel) की पहचान कर सकते हैं। आंकड़ों का यह प्रदर्शन प्रयोक्ता की प्रतिबिंब के पुनर्गठन अथवा दृश्यांकन में, सहायता करता है। सेलों के आकार तथा उनकी संख्या के बीच संबंध को चित्र रेखा पूँज (रैस्टर) के विभेदन के रूप में अभिव्यक्त किया जाता है। रैस्टर फार्मेट में आंकड़ों पर जाल या वर्ग के आकार के प्रभाव को स्पष्ट किया जाता है।
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 6 (Hindi Medium) 3
चित्ररेखा पूँज (रैस्टर) फाइल फॉर्मेटों का प्रयोग प्रायः निम्नक्रियाओं के लिए किया जाता है
(i) वायव फ़ोटोग्राफों, उपग्रहीय प्रतिबिंबों, क्रमवीक्षित कागजी मानचित्रों के आंकिक प्रदर्शन के लिए।
(ii) जब लागत/कीमत को कम करना आवश्यक हो।
(iii) जब मानचित्र में व्यक्तिगत मानचित्रीय लक्षणों का विश्लेषण आवश्यक हो।
(iv) जब ‘बैकड्राप’ मानचित्रों की आवश्यकता हो।
सदिश ( वेक्टर) आँकड़ा फॉर्मेट – एक सदिश (वेक्टर) आंकड़ा फॉर्मेट अपने यथार्थ निर्देशांकों द्वारा भंडारित बिंदुओं का प्रयोग करता है। इसमें रेखाओं और क्षेत्रों का निर्माण बिंदुओं के अनुक्रम होता है। रेखाओं की दिशा बिंदुओं के क्रमण के अनुरूप होती हैं। बहुभुजों का निर्माण बिंदुओं अथवा रेखाओं द्वारा होता है। सदिश (वेक्टर) आंकड़ों के निवेश के लिए हस्तेन अंकीकरण सर्वोत्तम विधि है। सदिश आंकड़ा प्रदर्शन, केवल निर्देशांकों के आरंभिक तथा अंतिम बिंदुओं को अंकित कर रेखा की स्थिति स्पष्ट करके होगा। प्रत्येक बिंदु की अभिव्यक्ति दो अथवा तीन संख्याओं के रूप में होगी। यह इस तथ्य पर निर्भर करेगा कि प्रदर्शन द्वि-आयामी है अथवा त्रि-आयामी। इन्हें प्रायः X, Y तथा X, Y, Z निर्देशांकों द्वारा निर्दिष्ट किया जाता हैं।
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 6 (Hindi Medium) 3.1
(ii) भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र से संबंधित कार्यों को क्रमबद्ध रूप में किस प्रकार किया जाता है?
उत्तर: भौगोलिक सूचनातंत्र से संबंधित क्रियाओं को क्रमबद्ध रूप में करना होता है जैसे
(i) स्थानिक आंकड़ा निवेश – इसमें आंकड़ा आपूर्तिदाता से आंकिक आंकड़ा समुच्चय का प्रग्रहण करके, जो विभिन्न स्रोतों से प्राप्त हुए होते है, उनकी जाँच की जाती है कि आंकड़े अपने अनुप्रयोग के साथ संगत हैं।
अथवा नहीं। याद ऐसा नहीं है तो उन्हें संगत बनाने की प्रक्रिया से गुजरना पड़ता है।
(ii) गुणन्यास की प्रविष्टि – इसमें प्रकाशित रिकार्डी, सरकारी जनगणनाओं, प्राथमिक सर्वेक्षणों अथवा स्प्रेडशीटों जैसे स्रोतों से उपार्जित गुण न्यास को GIS सूचनाधार में या तो हस्तेन अथवा मानक स्थानांतरण फार्मेट का प्रयोग करते हुए, आंकड़ों को प्राप्त करके निवेश किया जाता है।
(iii) आंकड़ों का सत्यापन तथा संपादन – इसमें आंकड़ों की शुद्धता को सुनिश्चित करने हेतु त्रुटियाँ की पहचान तथा उनमें आवश्यक संशोधन के लिए भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र में प्रग्रहित आंकड़ों को सत्यापन की आवश्यकता होती है। स्थानिक और गुण-न्यास के प्रग्रहण, के दौरान उत्पन्न त्रुटियों को इस तरह वर्गीकृत किया जा सकता
(क) स्थानिक आंकड़े अपूर्ण अथवा दोहरे हैं।
(ख) स्थानिक आंकड़े गलत मापनी पर है।
(ग) स्थानिक आंकड़े विरुपित हैं।
(iv) स्थानिक और गुण न्यास आंकड़ों की सहलग्नता – इसमें आंकड़े एक-दूसरे से सुमेलित होने चाहिए।
(v) स्थानिक विश्लेषण-स्थानिक विश्लेषण की कई विधियाँ है जैसे
(क) अधिचित्रण विश्लेषण
(ख) ब्रफर विश्लेषण
(ग) परिपथ जाल विश्लेषण
(घ) आंकिक भू-भाग मॉडल। भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र में विश्लेषण के लिए ये सभी विधियाँ उपयोग में लाई
जाती हैं। कौन-सी विधि कहाँ उपयुक्त होगी यह निश्चित करके ही उसका उपयोग करना चाहिए।

Hope given Practical Work in Geography Class 12 Solutions Chapter 6 are helpful to complete your homework.

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NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-5/

Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 5

Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 5

Question 1.
Write an essay on ‘Kitab-ul-Hind.’
Or
Explain the structure adopted by Al-Biruni in each chapter of his works.(C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Or
State any two features of ‘Kitab-ul-Hind.’ (C.B.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))
Answer:
Kitab-ul-Hind is a work of Al-Biruni written in Arabic. Its language is simple and lucid. It is a detailed epic which is divided in 80 chapters which include subjects like religion and philosophy, astronomy, festivals, manners and customs, alchemy, weights and measures, social life, iconography laws and metrology.

Al-Biruni used a distinctive structure in each chapter. It starts with a question, then there is some description based on Sanskritic traditions and in the end it has the comparison with other cultures. Some modern day philosophers suggest that he was more inclined towards Mathematics. That may be the reason why his book is, almost geometric structure, remarkable for its precision and predictability.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society

Question 2.
Compare and contrast the perspectives from which Ibn-Battuta and Bernier wrote accounts of their travels in India.
Answer:
Ibn-Battuta and Bernier have written the account of their travels from different perspectives. Ibn-Battuta described everything that impressed and excited him because of its novelty. On the other hand, Francois Bernier had a different intellectual tradition. He wrote about whatever he saw in India. But he compared and contrasted it with the situation in Europe in general and France in particular.

He focussed on situations which seemed depressing to him. He wanted to influence the policy makers and the intelligentsia. He wanted them to take the right decisions. In fact Bernier wanted to pin-point the weaknesses of the Indian society. He considered the Mughal India inferior to the European society. On the other hand, Ibn-Battuta recorded his observations about new cultures, peoples, beliefs and values.

Question 3.
Discuss the picture of urban centres that emerges from Bernier’s account.
Answer:
According to Bernier, about 15% population lived in the towns in the seventeenth century. This percentage was quite higher than the proportion of urban population in Western Europe during the same period. Inspite of this, Bernier described the Mughal cities as ‘camp towns’. He meant to say that the Mughal cities owed their existence to the imperial camp. He believed that the cities emerged when the imperial court moved in and they declined when this court moved out. In other words, the Mughal cities lacked strong social and economic foundations. They were dependent on the imperial patronage.

The Mughal times had all kinds of towns, such as manufacturing towns, trading towns, port towns, pilgrimage towns and sacred centres. Their existence depended on the prosperity of merchant communities and professional classes. In fact the merchants were a strong community. They were called the Mahajans. Their chief was called the Seth or the Nagarseth. There were a few other groups like the physicians, teachers, lawyers, painters, architects, musicians and calligraphers. A few of them enjoyed the imperial patronage. Some others lived by serving other patrons. A few others served the common people in the crowded markets.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society

Question 4.
Analyse the evidence for slavery provided by Ibn-Battuta.’
Or
Explain Ibn-Battuta’s description about the slaves in India. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Answer:
According to Ibn-Battuta, slaves like any other commodity, were openly sold in the markets. They were also regularly exchanged as gifts.

  • When Ibn-Battuta reached Sindh, he purchased horses, camels and slaves. He wanted to offer them as gifts to Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
  • When Ibn-Battuta reached Multan, he presented not -only raisins and almonds to the governor but also a slave and a horse.
  • There were some female slaves in the service of the Sultan. They were experts in music and dance. Ibn-Battuta enjoyed their performance at the wedding of the sister of Sultan.
  • The Sultan also employed female slaves to keep a watch on his nobles.
  • The slaves were also engaged for domestic work. They carried men and women on palanquins or dola but were given low wages.
  • Most families kept one or two slaves.

Question 5.
What were the elements of the practice of Sati that drew the attention of Bernier ?
Answer:
The following elements of the practice of Sati drew the attention of Bernier :

  • It was a cruel practice in which the widow was made to sit on the pyre of her husband alive.
  • The widow was an unwilling victim of the Sati- practice. She was forced to be a Sati.
  • The people had no sympathy even for the child-widows.
  • The cries of the woman going to he a Sati, did not move anyone.
  • The Brahmans and the elderly women of the house participated in this practice or process.

Question 6.
Discuss Al-Biruni’s understanding of caste system.
Answer:
Al-Biruni had explained the caste system in India. He also looked for similar systems in other societies of the world. He stated that the ancient Persia had the following four social categories :

  • Knights and Princes
  • Monks, fire priests and lawyers
  • Scientists, Astronomers and physicians
  • Peasants and Artisans.

So Al-Biruni suggested that the social divisions were not unique to India. He also stated that in Islam, all people were considered equal.
Disapproval of the Notion of Pollution : Though Al-Biruni accepted the Brahmanical description of caste system yet he did not accept its notion of pollution. He believed that everything that is impure attempts to regain its original condition of purity. The Sun cleanses the air. The salt in the sea prevents the water from being polluted. Without this natural arrangement, according to Al-Biruni, life on earth would not have been possible. In fact, Al-Biruni considered the notion of social pollution as contrary to the laws of nature.

The System of Four Varnas. Al-Biruni has also given an account of the system of Varnas in the Indian society. According to him, the following varnas were found: Brahmans. They belonged to the highest caste. They were created from the head of Brahma. So the Hindus consider them as the very best of mankind.

Kshatriyas. They were also very important but below the Brahmans. They were created from the shoulders and hands of Brahma.
Vaishyas. They came at the third position as they were created from the thigh of Brahma. Fourth Varna. They stand at the bottom of social hierarchy. They were created from the feet of Brahma. There is not a big difference between the Vaishyas and Fourth varna.
Thus, we see that Al-Biruni’s description of caste system was deeply influenced by his study of normative Sanskrit Books. In fact the caste system was based on the rules framed by the Brahmans. But in real life, this system was not very rigid.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society

Question 7.
Do you think Ibn-Battuta’s account is useful in arriving at an understanding of life in contemporary urban centres ? Give reasons for your answer.
Or
Explain the observations of in Battuta about Indian cities with special reference to Delhi and its rampart round the city.
(C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Or
Explain the observations of Ibn Battuta about the cities of India, with special reference to Delhi. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Or
“Ibn-Battuta found Delhi as a city full of exciting opportunities.” Support your answer with evidences given by him. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Or
“Ibn-Battuta found cities in the Indian subcontinent full of exciting opportunities.” Explain the statement I with reference to the city of Delhi.(C.B.S.E. 2018)
Answer:
There is no doubt that the description of Ibn- Battuta is quite helpful in understanding the lifestyle of the Indian cities. His description is quite clear and extensive. It seems as if the true picture emerges before our eyes.
(i) Ibn-Battuta stated that Indian cities had many exciting opportunities. They were useful for those who had the necessary drive, skill and resources.

(ii) The Indian cities were densely populated. They were also prosperous and had crowded streets. They had bright and colourful markets trading in a variety of goods. They were occasionally disturbed because of wars or invasions.

(iii) According to Ibn-Battuta, Delhi was a vast city. It had a lot of population and was the largest city in India. Another big city was Daultabad in Maharashtra which challenged Delhi in size.

(iv) The markets and bazaars of the Indian cities were not only the places of the economic transactions but also the centres of social and cultural activities. Most of the bazaars had a mosque and a temple. They also had fixed places for public performances by dancers, musicians and singers.

(v) Ibn-Battuta found that many towns derived their wealth and prosperity through the appropriation of surplus from villages.

(vi) According to Ibn-Battuta, Indian agriculture was very productive. The farmers cultivated two crops a year because the land was very fertile.

(vii) The goods of India were in great demand in both West Asia and South-east Asia. So artisans and merchants earned huge profits. The sub-continent was well-integrated with inter-Asia networks of trade and commerce.

Question 8.
Discuss the extent to which Bernier’s account enables historians to reconstruct contemporary rural society.
Answer:
The assessment of Bernier about the rural society of India was not correct. It was misleading and far from truth. But there is also some truth in his descriptions which is evident .from the following examples:

(i) Bernier stated that in the Mughal Empire, the emperor owned all the land and distributed it among his nobles. This had a disastrous impact on the Indian economy and society.

(ii) Bernier did not consider the system of the crown ownership of land good. Because of this, the land-holders could not pass on their land to their children. They could also not make any long-term investments. As there was no private property in land, there was not an improved class of landlords. This system ruined the whole of agriculture. It also led to the oppression of the peasants and lowered the living standards of all sections of society.

(iii) Bernier’s view of Indian society had the following features:

  • It had impoverished people. The rich people constituted a small minority.
  • It had only the poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich. It had no middle class.
  • The Mughal king was the king of beggars and barbarians.
  • All the cities and towns were ruined. They had contaminated air.

Thus, Bernier’s descriptions of the Indian rural society brought out many social and economic differences. There’were big Zamindars as well as landless labourers who were despised as the untouchables.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society

Question 9.
Read this excerpt from Bernier.
“Numerous are the instances of handsome pieces of workmanship made by persons destitute of tools, and who can scarcely be said to have received instruction from a master. Sometimes they imitate so perfectly articles of European menufacture that the difference between the original and copy can hardly be discerned. Among other things, the Indians made excellent muskets, and fowling pieces, and such beautiful gold ornaments that it may be doubted if the exquisite workmanship of those articles can be exceeded by any European goldsmith. I have often admired the beauty,. softness, and delicacy of their paintings.” List the crafts mentioned in the passage. Compare those with the descriptions of artisanal activity in the chapter.
Answer:
This excerpt mentioned the crafts of making muskets and fowling pieces and making beautiful gold ornaments. Indian artisans made them with great efficiency and delicacy. These products were so beautiful that even Bernier was amazed to see these products. He wrote that he doubted whether these articles can be exceeded by any European goldsmith.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society

Comparison : Other artisanal activities described in the chapter are given below:
Artisans engaged in manufacturing carpets, brocades, embroideries, gold and silver goods, making shoes, carpentery, tailoring, painting, goldsmiths, varnishers, joiners, turners, manufactures of silk, brocade and fine muslins were the few artisanal activities described in this chapter. All these activities took place in royal Karkhanas. These artisans used to come every morning to the Karkhanas where they remained for the whole day. In the evening, they returned to their homes
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers Perceptions of Society

 

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NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 Data Processing (Hindi Medium)

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 Data Processing (Hindi Medium)

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 Data Processing (Hindi Medium)

These Solutions are part of NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography. Here we have given NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 Data Processing. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-geography-practical-work-in-geography-chapter-2-hindi/

अभ्यास प्रश्न (पाठ्यपुस्तक से)

प्र० 1. निम्नांकित चार विकल्पों में से सही विकल्प चुनिए
(i) केंद्रीय प्रवृत्ति का जो माप चरम मूल्यों से प्रभावित नहीं होता है वह है
(क) माध्य
(ख) माध्य तथा बहुलक
(ग) बहुलक
(घ) माध्यिका
(ii) केंद्रीय प्रवृत्ति का वह माप जो किसी वितरण के उभरे भाग से हमेशा संपाती होगा वह है
(क) माध्यिका
(ख) माध्य तथा बहुलक
(ग) माध्य
(घ) बहुलक
(iii) ऋणात्मक सहसंबंध वाले प्रकीर्ण अंकन में अंकित मानों के वितरण की दिशा होगी
(क) ऊपर बाएँ से नीचे दाएँ
(ख) नीचे बाएँ से ऊपर दाएँ
(ग) बाएँ से दाएँ
(घ) ऊपर से दाँए से नीचे बाएँ

उत्तर:
(i) (घ) माध्यिका
(ii) (ख) माध्य तथा बहुलक ।
(iii) (क) ऊपर बाएँ से नीचे दाएँ

प्र० 2. निम्नलिखित प्रश्नों के उत्तर लगभग 30 शब्दों में दीजिए
(i) माध्य को परिभाषित कीजिए?
उत्तर: किसी चर/मद के विभिन्न मूल्यों का साधारण अंकगणितीय औसत माध्य कहलाता हैं। यह अधिकतम व न्यूनतम मूल्यों/ मानों के बीच एक स्थिर मूल्य होता है।
(ii) बहुलक के उपयोग के क्या लाभ हैं?
उत्तर: किसी श्रेणी में जिस मान/मूल्य की सबसे अधिक पुनरावृत्ति होती है वह मान बहुलक कहलाता है। बहुलक में वे मान महत्वपूर्ण होते हैं जिनकी पुनरावृत्ति सर्वाधिक बार हुई है। ये मान प्रायः श्रेणी के मध्य में होते हैं। अतः बहुलक पर श्रेणी के चरम मूल्यों/मानों का प्रभाव नहीं पड़ता।
(iii) प्रकीर्णन किसे कहते हैं?
उत्तर: दो चरों के बीच विशिष्ट सह संबंध अथवा साहचर्य को दर्शाने के लिए बनाए गए रेखा-चित्रों को प्रकीर्ण आरेख अथवा प्रकीर्ण अंकन कहते हैं। इस रेखाचित्र पर X तथा Y मानों का बिखराव प्रकीर्णन कहलाता है।
(iv) सहसंबंध को परिभाषित कीजिए।
उत्तर: कुछ भौगोलिक परिघटनाओं के परिणाम ज्ञात करने के लिए दो या अधिक चरों के बीच साहचर्य अथवा पारस्परिक निर्भरता, उनकी प्रकृति, दिशा व गहनता का अध्ययन ही सहसंबंध है।
(v) पूर्ण सहसंबंध किसे कहते हैं?
उत्तर: सहसंबंध की दिशा व गहनता का विस्तार किसी भी परिस्थिति में ± 1 से अधिक नहीं हो सकता। सहसंबंध पूरी 1 (एक) होने पर (चाहे धनात्मक हो या ऋणात्मक) इसे पूर्ण सहसंबंध कहा जाता है।
(vi) सहसंबंध की अधिकतम सीमाएँ क्या हैं?
उत्तर: सहसंबंध की अधिकतम सीमाएँ -1 से लेकर +1 के बीच कुछ भी हो सकती है। यह जितना शून्य (0) के समीप होगी सहसंबंध उतना ही कमजोर होगा तथा जितना ± 1 के पास होगी सहसंबंध उतना ही प्रगाढ अथवा संघन होगा।

प्र० 3. निम्नलिखित प्रश्नों के उत्तर लगभग 125 शब्दों में दीजिए|
(i) आरेखों की सहायता से सामान्य तथा विषम वितरणों में माध्य, माध्यिका तथा बहुलक की सापेक्षिक स्थितियों की व्याख्या कीजिए।
उत्तर: सामान्य वितरण की विशेषता है कि इसमें माध्य, माध्यिका तथा बहुलक का मान समान होता है क्योंकि सामान्य वितरण सममित होता है। इसमें अधिकतम आवृत्ति का मान, वितरण के मध्य में होता है तथा इस बिंदू से आधी इकाईयाँ ऊपर व आधी नीचे होती हैं। अति उच्च तथा अति निम्न मूल्यों की बारंबारता बहुत ही कम होती हैं। देखें चित्र सामान्य वक्र आवृत्तियों को प्रदर्शित करने वाला रेखाचित्र घंटाकार वक्र कहलाता है। सामान्य वक्र में आंकड़ों की परिवर्तनशीलता कम अथवा अधिक हो सकती है। सामान्य वक्र का एक उदाहरण है-चित्र A में धनात्मक विषमता वाला वक्र दिखाया गया है जिसमें निम्न मूल्यों की आवृत्तियाँ अधिक तथा अधिक मूल्य की आवृत्तियाँ कम है। इस स्थिति में पहले बहुलक, फिर माध्यिका तथा अंत में माध्य आता है। जबकि चित्र B में ऋणात्मक विषमता वाला वक्र दिखाया गया है। इसमें कम मूल्य की आवृत्तियाँ कम तथा अधिक मूल्य की आवृत्तियाँ अधिक होती हैं। इस स्थिति में पहले माध्य, फिर माध्यिका तथा अंत में बहुलक आता है।
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 (Hindi Medium) 3
यदि आंकड़े विषम अथवा विकृत हों तो माध्य, माध्यिका तथा बहुलक संपाती नहीं होंगे। विषम आंकड़ों के प्रभाव को A तथा B के द्वारा स्पष्ट रूप से समझा जा सकता है।
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 (Hindi Medium) 3.1
(ii) माध्य, माध्यिका तथा बहुलक की उपयोगिता का वर्णन उनके गुण व दोषों के आधार पर कीजिए।
उत्तर:

  1. सामान्य वितरण में माध्य, माध्यिका तथा बहुलक का मान समान होता है।
  2. अधिकतम आवृत्ति का मान वितरण के मध्य में होता है।
  3. मध्य बिंदू से आधी इकाइयाँ ऊपर तथा आधी नीचे होती हैं।
  4. अधिकतर इकाइयाँ वितरण के मध्य में अर्थात् माध्य के निकट होती हैं।
  5. अति उच्च तथा अति निम्न मूल्यों की बारंबारता का बंटन बहुत ही कम होता है।
  6. सामान्य वितरण वक्र की आकृति घंटाकार वक्र जैसी होती हैं क्योंकि यह वक्र सममित होती है।
  7. यदि आंकड़े विषम अथवा विकृत हों तो माध्य, माध्यिका तथा बहुलक संपाती नहीं होंगे।
  8. सामान्य वितरण वक्र की सहायता से केंद्रीय प्रवृत्ति के तीनों मापों की तुलना आसानी से की जा सकती है।

(iii) एक काल्पनिक उदाहरण की सहायता से मानक विचलन के गणना की प्रक्रिया समझाइए।
उत्तर: मानक विचलन, प्रकीर्णन का सर्वाधिक स्थिर भाप है। इसकी गणना हमेशा माध्य के परिपेक्ष्य में की जाती है। इसलिए इस वर्ग माध्यन्मूल विचलन भी कहते हैं। इसे ग्रीक अक्षर 6 से तथा अंग्रेजी अक्षर SD से अभिव्यक्त करते हैं।
इसका गणितीय सूत्र है-
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 (Hindi Medium) 3.2
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 (Hindi Medium) 3.3
(iv) प्रकीर्णन का कौन-सा माप सबसे अधिक अस्थिर है तथा क्यों?
उत्तर: प्रकीर्णन को मापने के लिए अनेक विधियाँ प्रयोग में लाई जाती हैं। जैसे-विस्तार, चतुर्थक विचलन, माध्य विचलन, मानक विचलन, विचरण गुणांक तथा लॉरेंज वक्र आदि। इनमें से प्रत्येक विधि के अपने विशेष गुण तथा सीमाएँ हैं। किंतु विस्तार अथवा परिसर द्वारा परिकलित माप सबसे अधिक अस्थिर है। क्योंकि इसे श्रेणी के सबसे । उच्चतम मान में से-न्यूनतम मान को घटाकर प्राप्त किया जाता है। जैसे-निम्नलिखित अवर्गीकृत आंकड़ों के आधार पर दैनिक मजदूरी के वितरण के लिए विस्तार की गणना कीजिए – रु० 80, 85, 95, 100, 110, 120, 200 है। विस्तार/परिसर की गणना के लिए सूत्र है- R = L – S, R = परिसर (Range), L = उच्चतम मान (Largest Value) S = निम्नतम मान (Smallest Value) यहाँ L = 200, तथा S = 200 हैअतः R= L – S अर्थात् R = 200 – 80 = 120 यदि इस श्रेणी में से अंतिम माने = 200 को हटा दें तब R = 120 – 80 = 40 इस तरह केवल एक मान को हटाने पर R का मान घटकर केवल एक-तिहाई रह गया है।
अतः दो चरम मानों पर आधारित परिणाम भ्रामक, अवास्तविक व अविश्वसनीय होते हैं।
(v) सहसंबंध की गहनता पर एक विस्तृत टिप्पणी लिखिए।
उत्तर: सहसंबंध की गहनता का मापन दोनों चरों में अनुरूपता या साहचर्य की मात्रा पर निर्भर करता है। इस अनुरूपता
अथवा साहचर्य की गहनता की मात्रा गणितीय दृष्टि से -1 से शून्य की ओर बढ़ते हुए +1 तक हो सकती है। अतः इसका मान किसी भी परिस्थिति में ± 1 से अधिक नहीं हो सकता।। सह संबंध पूरा 1 (एक) होने पर (चाहे वह धनात्मक हो या ऋणात्मक) इसे पूर्ण सहसंबंध क़हते हैं। गहनतम सहसंबंध के दो विपरीत सिरों ± 1 के ठीक मध्य में (शून्य) 0 सहसंबंध की स्थिति होती है। इस बिंदू पर या उसके समीप चरों की उपस्थिति सहसंबंध के अभाव को दर्शाती है।
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 (Hindi Medium) 3.4
दो चरों के मध्य विशिष्ट साहचर्य को दर्शाने के लिए बनाए गए आरेख को प्रकीर्ण आरेख अथवा प्रकीर्ण अंकन कहते हैं। रेखाचित्र पर X तथा Y मानों का बिखराव अथवा प्रकीर्णन सहसंबंध की गहनता को दर्शाते हैं। प्रकीर्ण आरेख पर जब एक सरल रेखा निचले बाँए से ऊपरी दाएँ भाग की ओर अग्रसर होती हैं तो यह पूर्ण धनात्मक सहसंबंध (1.00) को दर्शाती है। इसके विपरीत जब यह रेखा ऊपरी बाएँ से निचले दाएँ भाग की ओर जाती है। तब पूर्ण ऋणात्मक सहसंबंध (-1.00) को दर्शाती है। सहसंबंध का अभाव होने पर या शून्य सहसंबंध होने पर X तथा Y चरों में कोई परिवर्तन नहीं होता। प्रकीर्ण आरेख पर X तथा Y चरों का बिखराव X तथा Y अक्ष के समान्तर होता है और समांतर सरल रेखाएँ दिखाई देती हैं।
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 (Hindi Medium) 3.5
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 (Hindi Medium) 3.6
(vi) कोटि सहसंबंध की गणना के विभिन्न चरण कौन से हैं?
उत्तर: स्पीयर मैंन ने कोटियों के आधार पर सहसंबंध की गणना विधि प्रस्तुत की है। प्रचलित रूप में इसे स्पीयरमैन के कोटि सहसंबंध के नाम से जाना जाता है जिसे ग्रीक अक्षर P तथा उच्चारण रो (rho) से अभिव्यक्त किया जाता है। इसकी गणना के निम्न चरण हैं-
प्रथम चरण – दिए गए X तथा Y चरों के आंकड़ों को तालिका में क्रमशः प्रथम व द्वितीय स्तंभों में लिख दिया जाता है जैसे-
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 (Hindi Medium) 3.7
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 (Hindi Medium) 3.8
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Practical Work in Geography Chapter 2 (Hindi Medium) 3.9

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NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography India People and Economy Chapter 10 Transport and Communication (Hindi Medium)

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography India: People and Economy Chapter 10 Transport and Communication (Hindi Medium)

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography India: People and Economy Chapter 10 Transport and Communication (Hindi Medium)

These Solutions are part of NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography. Here we have given NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography India: People and Economy Chapter 10 Transport And Communication. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-geography-india-people-and-economy-chapter-10-hindi/

अभ्यास प्रश्न (पाठ्यपुस्तक से)

प्र० 1. नीचे दिए गए चार विकल्पों में से सही उत्तर को चुनिए।
(i) भारतीय रेल प्रणाली को कितने मंडलों में विभाजित किया गया है?
(क) 9
(ख) 12
(ग) 16
(घ) 14
(ii) निम्नलिखित में से कौन-सा भारत का सबसे लंबा राष्ट्रीय महामार्ग है?
(क) एन. एच-1
(ख) एन. एच-6
(ग) एन. एच-7
(घ) एन. एच-8
(iii) राष्ट्रीय जल मार्ग संख्या-1 किस नदी पर तथा किन दो स्थानों के बीच पड़ता है?
(क) ब्रह्मपुत्र-सादिया-धुबरी
(ख) गंगा-हल्दिया-इलाहाबाद
(ग) पश्चिमी तट नहर-कोट्टापुरम से कोल्लाम
(iv) निम्नलिखित में से किस वर्ष में पहला रेडियो कार्यक्रम प्रसारित हुआ था?
(क) 1911
(ख) 1936
(ग) 1927
(घ) 1923

उत्तर:
(i) (ग) 16
(ii) (ख) एन. एच-7
(iii) (ख) गंगा-हल्दिया-इलाहाबाद
(iv) (घ) 1923

प्र० 2. निम्नलिखित प्रश्नों के उत्तर लगभग 30 शब्दों में दें।
(i) परिवहन किन क्रियाकलापों को अभिव्यक्त करता है? परिवहन के तीन प्रमुख प्रकारों के नाम बताएँ।
उत्तर: परिवहन आर्थिक क्रियाकलापों के तृतीयक वर्ग में सेवाओं के अंतर्गत आता है। जिसमें पदार्थों, वस्तुओं के लोगों को एक स्थान से दूसरे स्थान पर पहुँचाया जाता है। परिवहन के तीन मुख्य प्रकार हैं – (i) स्थल-सड़क, रेल व पाइप लाइन परिवहन, (ii) जल-अंत:स्थलीय व महासागरीय, (iii) वायु अंतर्देशीय (घरेलू) व अंतर्राष्ट्रीय।
(ii) पाइप लाइन परिवहन से लाभ एवं हानि की विवेचना करें।
उत्तर: पाइप लाइनों के द्वारा द्रव एवं गैस जैसे-खनिज तेल, परिष्कृत पेट्रोलियम, प्राकृतिक गैस तथा पेयजल आदि को परिवहन किया जाता है। एक बार पाइप लाइन बिछा देने के बाद इससे अबाधित प्रचालन होता रहता है। यह सस्ता व सुगम साधन है। इसे जल, थल, मरुस्थल, पर्वत, वन कहीं से भी निकाला जा सकता है। फिर भी कुछ हानियाँ भी इस परिवहन के प्रचालन में आती हैं। जैसे – (i) इसकी क्षमता नहीं बढ़ाई जा सकती, (ii) भूमिगत होने के कारण मरम्मत कार्य में दिक्कतें आती हैं, (iii) सुरक्षा की दृष्टि से उपयुक्त नहीं समझी जाती, (iv) रिसाव का पता लगाना कठिन होता है।
(iii) संचार’ से आपका क्या तात्पर्य है?
उत्तर: विचारों, दर्शन तथा संदेशों को एक स्थान से दूसरे स्थान पर पहुँचाने के लिए जिन माध्यमों व साधनों का उपयोग किया जाता है, वे संचार के साधन हैं। अर्थात संदेशों को पहुँचाना संचार है।
(iv) भारत में वायु परिवहन के क्षेत्र में ‘एयरइंडिया’ तथा ‘इंडियन’ के योगदान की विवेचना करें।
उत्तर: भारत में वायु परिवहन की शुरुआत 1911 ई० में हुई थी। स्वतंत्रता प्राप्ति के बाद देश में एयर अथॉरिटी ऑफ इंडिया वायु परिवहन का प्रबंधन व प्रचालन करता है। भारत में एयर इंडिया यात्रियों तथा नौभार परिवहन के लिए अंतर्राष्ट्रीय वायु सेवाएँ प्रदान करती है जबकि इंडियन घरेलू अथवा अंतर्देशीय उड़ानों के लिए उपयोग में लाई जाती है। इसे कुछ समय पहले तक इंडियन एयरलांइस कहा जाता था। वर्ष 2005 में एयर इंडिया ने 1.22 करोड़ यात्रियों तथा 4.8 लाख टन नौभार का वहन किया जबकि इंडियन ने घरेलू प्रचालन के द्वारा 24.3 मिलियन यात्रियों तथा 20 लाख टन नौभार को अपने गंतव्य तक पहुँचाया था

प्र० 3. निम्नलिखित प्रश्नों के उत्तर लगभग 150 शब्दों में दें।
(i) भारत में परिवहन के प्रमुख साधन कौन-कौन से हैं? इनके विकास को प्रभावित करने वाले कारकों की विवेचना करें।
उत्तर: भारत में परिवहन के प्रमुख साधनों को तीन वर्गों के अंतर्गत रखा गया है
(i) स्थल परिवहन जिसमें मुख्यः सड़क मार्गों से परिवहन, रेलमार्गों से परिवहन, पाइप लाइनों से परिवहन, केबिलों (रोपवे) से परिवहन को शामिल किया जाता है।
(ii) जल परिवहन इसके दो वर्ग हैं
(क) अंत:स्थलीय जलमार्गों से परिवहन,
(ख) महासागरीय जलमार्गों से परिवहन।
(ii) वायु परिवहन-इसके अंतर्गत दो तरह की सेवाएँ उपलब्ध हैं
(क) अंतर्देशीय (घरेलू सेवाएँ) तथा
(ख) अंतर्राष्ट्रीय सेवाएँ।
इनके अलावा पर्वतीय क्षेत्रों में जहाँ सड़कें बनाना संभव नहीं होता वहाँ पदार्थों, वस्तुओं व लोगों के आवागमन के लिए रज्जू मार्गों, केबिल मार्गों (रोपवे) का प्रयोग परिवहन के लिए किया जाता है। परिवहन के साधनों के विकास को प्रभावित करने वाले कारक
(i) स्थलाकृति, उबड़ – खाबड़ पर्वतीय अथवा पठारी भागों में परिवहन के साधनों का विकास मैदानी समतल भागों की अपेक्षा कम होता है। इसका प्रत्यक्ष उदाहरण भारत के मैदानी भागों में सड़क व रेलवे मार्गों का जाल दुनिया के सबसे सघन जालों में से एक है जबकि हिमालय पर्वतीय भू-भाग, प्रायद्वीप पठार के अंतर्गत यह बहुत ही कम है।
(ii) विषम जलवायु जिन – क्षेत्रों की जलवायु विषम या मानवीय क्रियाओं के प्रतिकूल है वहाँ जनसंख्या का घनत्व व वितरण कम है। इसलिए वहाँ पर परिवहन के साधनों का विकास भी कम होता है।
(iii) संसाधनों की उपलब्धता – जिन प्रदेशों में संसाधनों की प्रचुरता है। वहाँ अनेक आर्थिक क्रियाओं का विकास स्वतः हो जाता है। औद्योगिकरण के विकास ने जनसंख्या के घनत्व को प्रभावित किया है जिसके कारण वहाँ परिवहन के साधनों का भी तेजी से विकास हुआ है।
(iv) सरकारी नीतियाँ – सरकारी नीतियाँ भी किसी प्रदेश के विकास को प्रभावित करती हैं। औद्योगिक संकुलों के विकास से जनसंख्या आकर्षित होती है तथा उन्हें गति देने के लिए परिवहन के विभिन्न साधनों का विकास किया जाता है।
(ii) पाइप लाइन परिवहन से लाभ एवं हानि की विवेचना करें।
उत्तर: प्र० 2. का (ii) देंखे।
(iii) भारत के आर्थिक विकास में सड़कों की भूमिका का वर्णन करें।
उत्तर: भारत का सड़क जाल विश्व के विशालतम सड़क-जालों में से एक है। इसकी कुल लंबाई 33.1 लाख कि०मी० है। (2005 के अनुसार) जिस पर प्रतिवर्ष लगभग 85% यात्री एवं 70% भार यातायात का परिवहन किया जाता है। छोटी दूरियों की यात्रा के लिए सड़क परिवहन सबसे उपयुक्त व अनुकूल माना जाता है। ये सड़कें देश के प्रमुख नगरों, महानगरों, राज्यों की राजधानियों, जिला मुख्यालयों, कस्बों व ग्रामीण क्षेत्रों के अलावा सभी औद्योगिक व व्यापारिक केन्द्रों को, रेलवे जक्शनों व विमान पत्तनों व समुद्री पत्तनों को आपस में जोड़ने में महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाती हैं। कृषि उत्पादन क्षेत्रों से लेकर लोगों के घरों तक पहुँच रखने वाला यह एकमात्र परिवहन व यातायात का साधन है।। निर्माण एवं रखरखाव के उद्देश्य से सड़कों को राष्ट्रीय महामार्गों, राज्य महामार्गों, जिला सड़कों तथा ग्रामीण सडकों के रूप में वर्गीकृत किया गया है। कई बार इनको कच्ची एवं पक्की सड़कों के रूप में भी वर्गीकृत किया जाता है।
किसी देश के आर्थिक विकास का मापन वहाँ विकसित परिवहन एवं संचार जाल के आधार पर भी किया जाता है। क्योंकि, ये औद्योगिकीकरण व व्यापार एवं वाणिज्य के विकास के महत्त्वपूर्ण सेवा तंत्र उपलब्ध करवाते हैं।

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NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography India: People and Economy Chapter 10 Transport and Communication (Hindi Medium) Read More »

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