CBSE Class 12

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 15 Framing the Constitution: The Beginning of a New Era Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-15/

Framing the Constitution: The Beginning of a New Era NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 15

Framing the Constitution: The Beginning of a New Era Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 15

Question 1.
What were the ideals expressed in the Objectives Resolution ?
Or
Explain the ideals introduced by Jawaharlal Nehru in the ‘Objectives Resolution’ that were to be kept in mind while framing the Constitution of India. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Answer:
The Objectives Resolution was presented in the Constituent Assembly on 13 December, 1946 by Jawaharlal Nehru. It outlined and defined the ideals and objectives of the constitution which are as follows:

• India was declared as an Independent Sovereign Republic.
• It assured justice, equality, liberty and fraternity to all its citizens.
• It provided adequate safeguards to minorities and also referred to the wall-being of the backward and depressed classes.
• India would combine the liberal ideas of democracy with the socialist idea of economic justice.
• India would adopt that form of government which would be acceptable to its people. No imposition from the British would be accepted by the Indian people.
• India would be a federation. India would work for world peace and human welfare.

Question 2.
How was the term minority defined by different groups ?
Answer:
Minority means that a particular community or a group of people is less as compared to the proportion of the total population. However, during the preparation of the Indian Constitution, all the members of the Constituent Assembly defined it in their own way.

(i) Pocker Bahadur from Madras stated that minorities existed in almost all the countries of the world. So he wanted a political framework in the country which might enable the minorities to live in harmony with others. In other words, the minorities should be well represented in the political system.

He considered Muslims as a minority and stated that they must have a meaningful role in the governance of the country. Their needs cannot be properly understood by the non-Muslims. Even non-Muslims cannot elect a true representative of the Muslims. In other words, a true representative of a community cannot be chosen by those who do not belong to that community.

(ii) N.G. Ranga stated that the real minorities were the common people of the country. He believed that the common people of the country were so depressed, oppressed and suppressed that they never enjoyed any civil rights. He particularly referred to the tribal people who were considered by the merchants as their bond slaves. Jaipal Singh also supported the views of N.G. Ranga.

(iii) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar considered the people belonging to the depressed castes as minority. However, Nagappa pointed out that numerically, depressed castes were not a minority as they were 20 to 25% of the total population.

(iv) Some members talked of religious minorities and sought special safeguards for them.

Question 3.
What were the arguments in favour of greater power to the provinces ?
Answer:
In the Constituent Assembly, the rights of the states were mostly defended by K. Santhanam, a member from Madras. He emphasised the need to strengthen the states.

(i) K. Santhanam was opposed to the centre being vested with more powers. He felt that an over-burdened centre would not be able to fulfil its responsibilities in an effective manner. The centre can become strong only if all the states are made stronger. He advocated that centre should be given less powers and states should be given more powers.

(ii) K. Santhanam was not happy with the proposed allocation of powers between the centre and the states. He felt that such a distribution of power would cripple the states. The fiscal powers would impoverish the states as most of the taxes have, been allocated to the centre. He feared that states would not be able to undertake any development project owing to lack of funds. No province can become strong without finances.

(iii) K. Santhanam was so opposed to the strong centre that he even went to the’extent of suggesting the abolition of federal system afid replacing it with the unitary system.

(iv) A member of the Constituent Assembly feared that an excessively centralised system would ultimately break. A few other members also expressed their apprehensions that if the states were kept weak, they would one day revolt against the centre.

Question 4.
Why did Mahatma Gandhi think Hindustani should be the national language ?
Answer:
In the 1930s, the Indian National Congress accepted the view that Hindustani should be the national language of India. Mahatma Gandhi felt that all the people should speak in a language which can well be understood by the common people. Hindustani which was a blend of Hindi and Urdu was a very popular language in India.

It was spoken by a large section of the people and was a composite language enriched by the interaction of diverse cultures. So Mahatma Gandhi was convinced that such a multi-cultural language would be the ideal language of communication between diverse communities. It would strengthen unity between the Hindus and the Muslims. It would also bring the people of the north closer to the people of the south. In other words, Mahatma Gandhi believed in the composite character of Hindustani.

Question 5.
What historical forces shaped the vision of the Constitution ?
Answer:
While addressing the meeting of the Constituent Assembly on 13 December, 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru spoke about the ideals of the new Indian Constitution. He discussed everything in a broad historical perspective. He referred to the historic efforts made in the past to achieve the goals of justice, liberty, equality, fraternity and fundamental rights. He linked the history of Constitutionmaking to a longer history of struggle for liberty and freedom. However, he also did not like to copy from the past.

The vision of the Indian Constitution was shaped by the aspirations of those who had participated in the freedom-struggle of India. So all the members of the Constituent Assembly cherished to imbibe the ideals of Democracy, Equality, Liberty, Justice and Fraternity. They pleaded social justice, opposed child marriage and permitted widow remarriage.

There was also a feeling that all religions must be just. Jyotiba Phizle while talking of the depressed castes in Maharashtra referred to social justice. In the same way, the communists and the socialists organised workers and peasants to press for economic justice. Our national movement was in fact a struggle for democracy, justice and rights.

Question 6.
Discuss the different arguments made in favour of protection of the oppressed groups.
Or
Describe the different arguments made in favour of protection of depressed classes in the Constituent Assembly.(C.B.S.E. 2017 (O.D.))
Answer:
(i) During the freedom struggle, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar demarided separate electorates for the depressed castes. But Mahatma Gandhi did not like this proposal. He refuted it saying that this would permanently alienate the depressed castes from the mainstream of the society.

(ii) Some members suggested protection and safeguards to resolve the problems of the untouchables. They felt that there must be a change in social norms and moral values of the caste society to ameliorate the condition of the down-trodden sections of society and the depressed castes.

(iii) J. Nagappa wanted to end the exploitation of depressed castes. He relented that people made use of their labour and services but kept them away from their social setup. People kept them away from themselves. They neither ate with them nor did they allow them to enter the temples.

Hence Nagappa propounded that the depressed castes must be educated and get their share in the administration. Because of these efforts and arguments, the Constituent Assembly at last recommended to abolish untouchability. It also recommended to open all the Hindu temples to all castes and reservation of seats in legislatures and jobs in government offices. It also put an end to social discrimination.

Question 7.
What connection did some of the members of the ‘Constituent Assembly make between the politibkl situation of the time and the need for a strong centre ?
Or
How did the Constituent Assembly of India protect the powers of the Central Government? Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (O.D.))
Or
Why did Dr. B. R. Ambedkar argue for strong centre in the constituent assembly? Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (D.))
Answer:
India attained its freedom on 15 August, 1947. But it was also divided on this day into two parts viz India and Pakistan. It was marred by communal frenzy and communal riots. So like Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar too propounded a strong Central Government for India. He referred to the riots and violence that were ripping the nation apart. Most of the members of the Constituent Assembly felt that a strong centre was the need of the hour. If it was not done, it would be infurious to national interests. A weak central authority would not be able to ensure peace, prosperity and political stability.

It would fail to coordinate vital matters of common concern. That is why, Gopalaswami Ayyangar appealed to all the members of the Constituent Assembly that “the Centre should be made as strong as possible.” Similarly Balakrishna Sharma stated that only a strong and united centre could plan for the well-being of the country, mobilise all the available resource, ensure strong defence against any aggressor and establish a proper administration. Almost all the members realised that a strong central government was necessary to forestall chaos, stop communal riots and usher economic development of the country.

Question 8.
How did the Constituent .Assembly seek to resolve the language controversy? Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Or
“Within the constituent Assembly of India the language issue was intensely debated.” Examine the views put forward by the members of the Assembly on this issue. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (O.D.))
Answer:
India is a vast country having different regions where different languages are spoken. So it was quite natural that the Constituent Assembly discussed the intricate issue of language for the newly- independent country. The discussion about the language problem generated intense arguments. Hindustani: A choice of Congress and Gandhi.

Before the independence of the country, the Congress had made up its mind to adopt Hindustani as the national language of the country. Mahatma Gandhi had also approved this decision. He was convinced that everyone should speak in a language which is understood by most of the common people. Hindustani was not a new language.

It was a blend of Hindi and Urdu and was a popular language as it was spoken by most of the people of the country. It was a composite language because it was enriched by the interaction of diverse cultures. So it was well-understood by most of the people living in different regions of the country.

It was in fact a multi-cultural language. Mahatma Gandhi considered Hindustani as an ideal language of communication between diverse communities. It could be a symbol of unity between the Hindus and the Muslims. It could also unite the people of the north with the people living in the south. Hindi was the language of the Hindus and Urdu was the language of the Muslims. But Hindustani, being a blend of these two languages, had a composite character. That is why, Mahatma Gandhi preferred it to be the national language of India.

Arguments in Support of Hindi : The case for Hindi was mostly pleaded by R.V. Dhulekar, a Congressman from the United Provinces. He wanted that Hindi should be used as the language of constitution-making. When he was told that all the members of the Constituent Assembly did not know Hindi, he felt infuriated and stated that those who did not know Hindustani were not worthy to be the members of the Constituent Assembly. He told such members to quit the Assembly. There was a commotion in the Assembly over his remarks. However the peace and order were restored due to the intervention of Jawaharlal Nehru.

Report of the Language Committee : The Language Committee of the Constituent Assembly suggested a compromise formula in its report. In order to resolve the deadlock over the issue of language, it advocated that Hindi in Devanagri script should be the official language of the country. It also suggested that transition from English to Hindi would be gradual. It stated that during the first fifteen years since the enforcement of the new constitution, English would continue to be used for all official purposes. In provinces, the governments will be free to choose one of the regional languages for their official work within the province.

In other words, the Language Committee referred to Hindi as the official language and not the national language of India. However, Dhulekar wanted Hindi to be declared as the national language and not as an official language of the country. Apprehensions of

Members from the South : The members in the Constituent Assembly who hailed from the southern states considered Hindi as a threat to their provincial languages. Many suspicions were expressed by Mrs. G. Durgabai of Madras and Sh. Shankar Rao Dev from Bombay. T.A. Ramalingam Chettiar from Madras suggested that the issue of language should be handled with tact and caution. Hindi should not be aggressively thrust upon the southern people. In other words, the members from South India wanted that Hindi should not be forcefully imposed on them.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 10 Colonialism and the Countryside: Exploring Official Archives Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-10/

Colonialism and the Countryside: Exploring Official ArchivesNCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 10

Colonialism and the Countryside: Exploring Official Archives Texts Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 10

Question 1.
Why was the Jotedar a powerful figure in many areas of rural Bengal ?
Or
Describe the position of the ‘Jotedars’ at the end of the 18th century. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Or
Explain how the powers of Jotedars within a village, was more effective than that of Zamindars. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Or
Why was the power of Jotedars within the village more effective than that of Zamindars ? Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Or
“Jotedars in enevitably weekened zamindars in Bengal by the end of the 18th century.” Give arguments support the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (D))
Or
Why were the Jotedar powerful ! figure in many areas of rural Bengal at the end of the Eighteenth Century? Give two reasons. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Or
Explain with examples the role of Jotedars in the permanent settlement system in Bengal. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (Comp.))
Answer:
When the Zamindars were in crisis in the eighteenth century, a group of rich peasants consolidated its position in the villages of Bengal. This class of rich peasants came to be known as Jotedars. They had a control over vast areas of land. Sometimes they had even a control on many thousand acres of land. They even controlled local trade and moneylending. They exercised immense power over the poor cultivators of the region and had become more powerful than the Zamindars. The following reasons were responsible for their strong position:

• They lived in villages therefore they had a lot of influence on many villagers.
• They opposed the efforts of the Zamindars to increase the jama of the village.
• They mobilised ryots to deliberately delay payments of revenue to the Zamindars.
• They controlled the local trade and moneylending.
• They had a control over several areas of land. They even purchased land when the estates of the Zamindars were being auctioned for failure to make payment of the revenue.

Question 2.
How did the Zamindars manage to retain control over their Zamindaris ?
Or
Explain two strategies devised by the Zamindars of Bengal to survive the pressure of high revenue demand auction of their lands. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Or
Explain two ways devised by the Zamindar of surviving of pressures of high revenue demands and possible action of their estates. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Answer:
The Zamindars adopted various means and measures to establish their control on their Zamindaris. These included the following :

• They adopted the strategy of fictitious sale of land. When a part of their estate was auctioned, their men bought the property by giving higher bids than others. Later on, they refused to pay up the purchase money due to which the estate was again auction. The same process of purchase was repeated. At last the State felt exhausted and sold the estate at a low price again to the Zamindar.
• They created hurdles in the possession of the land if anyone from outside the zamindari bought an estate at an auction.
• They transferred some of the estates in the name of women as the property of women could not be taken over.
• The Lathyals of the former Zamindars sometimes attacked the new buyers.
• Sometimes the ryots also resisted the entry of purchasers from outside.

Question 3.
How did the Paharias respond to the coming of outsiders ?
Answer:
The Paharias were the hill-folk who lived around the Rajmahal hills. They earned their living from the forest produce and practised shifting cultivation. Besides many of them were hunters, food- gatherers, charcoal producers and silk-worm rearers. They were intimately connected to the jungle life. They considered the entire region as their land. They considered it as the symbol of their identity and the base of their survival. However, they were hostile and apprehensive towards the outsiders. It is evident from the following points:

• They negotiated political relation with the outsiders. They got a regular tribute from them.
• They carried on a war with outsiders as they viewed them with suspicion and distrust.
• They resisted the inhabitation of the Santhals on the peripheris of the Rajmahal hills.

Question 4.
Why did the Santhals rebel against the British rule ?
Or
“The battle between the hoe and the plough was a long one.” Substantiate the statement with reference to the Santhals and Paharias of Raj Mahal hills during 18th century. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Or
Why did the Santhals rebel against Zamindars and the colonial power ? Give any two reasons. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Answer:
The British had failed to subdue the Paharias. They could not transform the hill-folk into settled agriculturists. So they turned to the Santhals who were ideal settlers. They demarcated a separated land for the Santhals and called it as Damin-i-Koh. All the Santhals lived within it and practised plough agriculture. They became settled peasants which resulted in the expansion of cultivation area and increase, in the revenue.

(i) By the 1850s, the Santhals rebelled against the Zamindars, moneylenders and the colonial state. They were not happy with all of these. The colonial government had imposed heavy taxes on their land. The moneylenders charged high rates of interest on loans and if any Santhal failed to pay his debt, his land was snatched by the moneylender. Besides the Zamindars also asserted control over their land.

(ii) The Santhals rose in rebellion against the British rule. They wanted to create an ideal world where they could rule themselves. So after the Santhal Revolt (1855-56), the Santhal Pargana was created taking 5500 sq. miles of land from the districts of Bhagalpur the Birbhum. It was an attempt by the British Government to reconcile the situation after the Santhal Revolt.

Question 5.
What explains the anger of the Deccan ryots against the moneylenders ?
Or
Critically examine the experiences of injustice felt by ryots on the refusal of extending loans of them after 1830s. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (C.D.))
Or
Examine the circumstances that led the Deccan ryots to revolt against the money lenders. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Or
Explain with examples how the Deccan Ryots should their anger against the money lenders in early nineteenth century. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (Comp.))
Answer:
Following were the main reasons of anger of the Deccan ryots against the money-lenders :
(i) Moneylenders refused to extend loans to ryots. Ryots felt that moneylenders were insensitive to their plight and miserable conditions.

(ii) Moneylenders were disobeying the traditional customary norms of rural areas. For example, the amount of interest could not exceed the principal amount. But in one of the case, the moneylender had charged more than ₹ 2,000 as interest on the principal amount of the 100.

(iii) Unpaid amount of interest was also being included in new loan deeds so that money-lender could remain away from the hands of law and his amount remained as it is.

(iv) No receipt was given to peasant in case of the repayment of loan.

(v) Ryots also complained of moneylenders manipulating laws and forging accounts.

Question 6.
Why Were many Zamindaris auctioned after the Permanent Settlement ?
Answer:
The Permanent Settlement of revenue was introduced in Bengal by Lord Charles Cornwallis in 1793 C.E. Under this system, the East India Company had fixed the amount of revenue to be paid by each Zamindar. Those who failed to pay the revenue were divested of their estates. These estates were later on auctioned to recover the revenue. They were sold to the highest bidder.

Question 7.
In what way was the livelihood of the Paharias different from that of the Santhals ?
Answer:
The Paharias lived around the Rajmahal hills. They were hostile and apprehensive towards the government officials. They were not willing to talk to any outside travellers. Livelihood of the Hill-Folk : The Paharias earned their livelihood by adopting the following professions:

• They practised shifting cultivation.
• They grew a variety of pulses and millets.
• They collected mahua (a flower) for food.
• They reared silk-worms and collected silk cocoons and resin for sale.
• They collected wood for charcoal production.
• They used the patches of grass on the land as pasture for the cattle.
• They hunted wild animals. ( Colonialism and the Countryside Exploring—Official Archives )
• They also raided the plains where the settled agriculturists lived.
• They resisted the intrusion of outsiders. If ever they allowed them, they negotiated political relations with them. They got a regular tribute from the Zamindars.
• They accepted toll from the traders. In return, they protected the traders and ensured that their goods were not plundered by anyone.

Livelihood of the Santhals : The Santhals had come into Bengal around the 1780s. They earned their livelihood by adopting the following jobs:

• They cleared forests and cut down timber.
• They ploughed lands and grew rice and cotton.
• They expanded cultivation and increased the inflow of revenue in the coffers of the East India Company.
• They cultivated many commercial crops for the market.
• They also dealt with traders and money-lenders.

Question 8.
How did the American Civil War affect the lives of ryots in India ?
Or
Explain the impact of American Civil War of 1861 on Indian peasants. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Or
Analyse the impact of cotton boom in India during the American Civil war. : (C.B.S.E. 2015 (O.D.))
Or
Analyse the impact of the American ; Civil war on the lives of the Ryots in ‘Deccan Countryside. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (D))
Answer:
Before the decade of 1860’s, Britain imported 3/4 of its cotton from America. The British manufacturers of cotton cloth were very much worried about their dependence of cotton over America. That is why they tried to find alternative sources of cotton supply. Cotton Supply Association was founded in Britain in 1857 and Manchester Cotton Company was formed in 1859.

Their main objective was to encourage production of cotton in every part of the world so that their Company could develop. India was seen as a country which could supply cotton to Lancashire in case of non-supply from America. ‘Indian soil and climate both were favourable for cotWh cultivation and cheap labour was also available.

American Civil War : The American Civil War broke out in 1861. It created a wave of panic in England as the raw cotton imports from America fell from 2,000,000 bails in 1861 to 5,500 bails in 1862. So England wanted to increase cotton exports from India. During this, cotton prices grew rapidly. This boom in the cotton market had a profound impact on the Deccan countryside. It had a considerable impact on the life of ryots.

Impact of the American Civil War on the Ryots : Due to the American Civil War, England wanted to get as much cotton as possible. It affected a lot the ryots of the Bombay Deccan. It is evident from the following points:

(i) The ryots found an access of limitless credit. The export merchants of Bombay gave advances to urban Sahukars. These Sahukars extended this credit to rural moneylenders on the assurance that they would provide the requisite cotton.

(ii) The ryots got ₹ 100/- as advance for every acre of cotton they planted.

(iii) The Sahukars were eager to give long-term loans to ryots.

(iv) The boom in cotton did not benefit all the ryots. While the rich peasants gained, a majority of them went under heavie

(v) As a boom in cotton market lasted for long, Indian cotton merchants began to visualise the capturing of world market in raw cotton by permanently displacing U.S.A. But this condition changed in 1865. The American Civil War came to an end and there again began production of cotton. As a result Indian export of cotton to Britain declined steadily.

Under these circumstances, moneylenders and export merchants of Maharashtra were no longer keen on providing long term loans. They observed that demand of Indian cotton is decreasing and prices of cotton are also coming down. That is why they stopped their business and refused to give advances to peasants. Now they began concentrating on recovery of loans.

Question 9.
What are the problems of using official sources in writing about the history of peasants ?
Answer:
The government or official sources are often comprehensive as they are based on enquiries, eye-witnesses, compiled statistical data and other reports. However, we come across the following problems while making use of the official sources:
(i) The official sources reflect official concerns and interpretation of events. For example, the Deccan Riots Commission specifically examined if the revenue

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-1/

Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 1

Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 1

Question 1.
List the food items available to people in Harappan cities. Identify the groups who would provide these.
Answer:

Question 2.
How do the archaeologists find socio-economic disparities in the Harappan society ? What disparities do they emphasise ?
Or
Describe how artifacts help in identifying social differences during the Harappan period. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Or
Describe briefly how the study of artifacts helps in identifying social differences of the Harappan period.(C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Or
Explain the socio-economic differences in Harappan society that archaeological finds seem to suggest. (C.B.S.E. Sample Paper 2011)
Or
Explain the strategies used by the archaeologists to understand socio¬economic differences among the Harappans. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (D))
Or
“The burials in Harappan sites reveal the economic and social differences amongst the people living within a particular culture.” Give two evidences in support of your answer. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (D))
Or
Examine how archaeologists have used burial to find out the social and economic differences amongts Harappan people. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))
Answer:
The archaeologists find many socio-economic disparities in the Harappan society. They make the following disparities as their base for further study :
1. Burials. We find many burials at the Harappan sites. At that time, the dead were generally laid in pits. Along with the dead body, different kinds of things were also kept. These things could be precious or ordinary. There was also a difference in the pits in which the dead were buried. The precious things reflected the strong economic condition of the dead. The common things were the symbol of his/her weak economic position.

2. Things of Luxury. The archaeologists also study artifacts to identify many other social and economic differences. These things can be classified as utilitarian and luxuries. The utilitarian things are objects of daily use. They are made of ordinary material such as stone or clay. They include querns, pottery and body scrubbers.

They were possessed by all the people in all the Harappan settlements. On the other hand, the luxuries were those objects which were rare and were made from costly and non-local materials or were made with the help of complicated technologies. For example, the pots of faience (a material prepared with the mixture of silica, colour and gum) were considered costly and precious because they were very difficult to make. The economic status of those societies was comparatively high where such things have been found.

Question 3.
Would you agree that the drainage system of the Harappan cities indicates town-planning? Give reasons for your answer.
Or
Describe briefly the drainage system of the Harappan cities. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (O.D.))
Or
“One of the most distinctive features of the Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage system.” Elaborate. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (O.D.))
Or
Describe the drainage system of the Harappan cities. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Answer:
We completely agree with the fact that all the Harappan cities had a carefully planned drainage system. In other words, the drainage system was an integral part of the town-planning. This system was essential to keep the city neat and clean. From this point of view, the drainage system of the Harappan cities was perfect. The domestic waste water passed through gutters to flow into the street drains.

It seems as if the streets along with the drains were laid out first. Then the residences were made along side these roads. One wall of the house always touched the side of a street so that the waste water may easily flow into the drains of the street.

The main drain was made of mud and bricks. It was covered with such bricks which could be removed for the purpose of sanitation. The gutters of the houses first fell into a sump or cess-pit. The solid in the water was accumulated here and the water flowed into the main drain. In this way, the dirty water flushed out of the city.

According to Mackay, “It is certainly the most complete ancient system as yet discovered.” In the end we can say that every house of the Harappan society was connected to the street drains which were made of bricks set in mortar. They were covered with limestone or loose bricks which could be easily removed for cleaning. In fact, the drainage system is considered a wonder of archaeology.

Question 4.
List the material used to make beads in the Harappan civilisation. Describe the process by which one kind of bead was made.
Or
Explain the techniques of craft production, especially bead making at the Harappan sites of Lothal and Chanhudaro. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (D.))
Answer:
One of the important craft of the people of Harappan civilisaiton was to prepare bands. It was mainly prevalent in Chanhudaro.

Material Used : A large variety of material was used to make the beads. It included beautiful colour stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite. Besides these, copper, bronze, gold shell, faience, terracota or burnt clay were also used.
The Process of Making Beads : The process of making beads was remarkable. It deffered according to the material. It had the following statges:

•  The beads did not have geometrical forms like the ones .made out of harder stones.
  They had a variety of shapes.
• The red colour of carnelian was obtained by firing the yellowish raw material.
• Nodules were chipped into rough shapes. Thus they were finely flaked into to final form.
• The last phase of the process incuded grinding, polishing and drilling. The specialised drills have been found at many sites like Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholavira.

Question 5.
Look at Fig 1.30 (Textbook) and describe what you see. How is the body placed ? What are the objects placed near it ? Are there any artefacts on the body ? Do these indicate the sex of the skeleton ?
Answer:

• Body has been kept in North-Southeren direction in a pit.
• Many graves contain pottery and ornaments which include jar.
• Yes, jewellery like bangles are there on the body.
• Yes, this indicates towards the sex of the skeleton, i.e., it is the body of a woman.

Question 6.
Discuss a few specialities or special features of Mohenjodaro.
Or
Describe the distinctive features of domestic architecture of Mohenjodaro.(C.B.S.E. 2017 (O.D.)
Or
“The domestic architecture of Mohenjodaro was unique.” Explain the statement with examples. (C.B.S.E. (O.D.) 2019)
Or
Describe the unique features of the urban centres of the Harappa Civilization.(C.B.S.E. 2019 (Comp.))
Answer:
Mohenjodaro was a unique and very important city of Harappan civilisation. Though it was discovered after Harappa, yet it has been very popular because of its unique features. Its special features are as follows:

1. A Planned Urban Centre : Harappa was a planned urban centre. It was divided into two sections. One section of this city was small and built on a higher place. The second section was large but it was at a lower place. The archaeologists designated the first section as the citadel and the second section as the lower town. The citadel owed its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms. It had walls on all its sides. These walls separated it from the Lower Town.

2. The Lower Town : The Lower Town was also a walled town. Most of the buildings were built on platforms which served as foundations. It has been estimated that if one worker moved about a cubic metre of earth daily, it would have needed four million person days. In other words, we can say that it required mobilisation of labour on a very large scale.

All the buildings in the city were built on the platforms. Thus,, the settlement was first planned and then implemented as per the building plan. This planning is also evident from the bricks which were both baked and sun-dried. These bricks were of standardised ratio. Their length and width was four times and twice the height respectively. Such bricks were used in all the settlements of the Harappan civilisation.

3. Well Planned Drainage System: The drainage system of the Harappan cities was also carefully planned. All the roads and streets were laid out on a grid pattern and intersected at right angles. It seems that streets having drains were laid out first. Thereafter houses were built along them. Every house had at least one wall along a street so that the domestic waste water could flow directly into the drain of the street.

4. Residence or Domestic Architecture : The Lower Town of Mohenjodaro had an expansion of residential buildings. All these buildings had a courtyard. The rooms were on all the sides of the courtyard. In the hot and dry weather, this courtyard was perhaps the centre of activities like cooking and weaving. While constructing residential buildings, the people had full concern for their privacy. These buildings did not have any windows in the walls along the ground level. Besides this, the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.

Every house had its own bathroom. It was floored with bricks. Its gutter was connected to the street drain through the wall. Some houses also had a staircase to reach a second storey or the roof. Many houses had wells. These wells were in a room which was easily approachable from outside and any body could reach it. It was perhaps built to be used by travellers. Many scholars believe that there were about 700 such wells in Mohenjodaro.

5. The Citadel : The citadel had many buildings which were used for special public purposes. The most important were the following two structures:
(i) The Warehouse : It had a vast structure. The lower portion of this building was made of bricks. Although a part of this portion is still intact, its upper portion was made of wood which decayed since long.
(if) The Great Bath : Another vast structure is the Great Bath which was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard. It had a corridor on all its sides. It had steps on both north and south sides so that one may go into it. It was made of bricks and a mortar of gypsum. It had also rooms on its three sides. One room had a large well. There was also a provision to flush the water of the tank into a huge drain. In fact, the Great Bath was a unique structure and had distinctive features. It was used for some kind of a special ritual bath.

Question 7.
List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation and discuss how these might have been obtained.
Answer:
A number of craft production centres were there in Harappan civilisation. For this, different types of raw materials could have been used. Some of the raw materials are given below :

• CarneLian (red colour)
• Jasper
• Crystal
• Quartz
• Steatite
• Copper
• Bronze
• Gold
• Shell (Or) Faience
• Terracotta or burnt day
• Different types of wood and stones
• Lapis Lazuli (blue stone)
• Nickel.

Different ways of obtaining them : Soil, wood, etc., were the raw materials which were locally available. But stones, fine quality wood, metals, etc., were procured from distant places. For this, different methods were used to obtain them such as the following:

(i) Establishment of Settlements : Harappan people established’ their settlements at those places where raw material was easily available. For example, shell was easily available in Nageshwar and Balacot. Few other places were also there like Shortughai in Afghanistan. This place was situated near to the source of lapis lazuli. In the same way Lothal for carnelian, Rajasthan and Gujarat were famous for copper.

(ii) Sending Expeditions : Sending expeditions was another policy of obtaining raw material. For example, expedition was sent to Khetri region of Rajasthan for copper and to South India for gold. Local communities were contacted through these expeditions. Availability of Harappan evidences in distant places indicates toward these contacts. Evidences found in Khetri region were given the name of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture by archaeologists. Huge reserves of copper products are found over here. Probably inhabitants of this area used to send copper to Harappan people.

Question 8.
What are the problems of .’archaeological interpretation in l reconstruction of the past ?
Or
Discuss how archaeologist reconstruct the past.
Or
Examine the problems faced by archaeologists in the interpretation of religious practices of Harappa. (C.B.8.E. 2014 (D))
Or
The problems of archaeological interpretations are perhaps most evident in the attempts to reconstruct religious fraction of Harappans. Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Answer:
There are certain problems in archaeological interpretation. Possibly most problems come in the reconstruction of religious practices. Early archaeologists feel that few unusual and unfamiliar objects are probably of religious importance. It includes terracotta figurines of women which were heavily jewelled and some with elaborate head dresses.

They were named as Mother Goddesses. Raw stone statues of men with an almost standerdised posture, seated with one hand on the knee are also included in this. Except this, statue of priest king is also a statue of this type. In other instances, structures have been assigned ritual importance. They include the Great Bath and fire alters found at Lothal and Kalibangan. Some important examples in this regard are given ahead :

(i) Some seals depict ritual scenes. Efforts have been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals.

(ii) Some other seals depicting pictures of plants indicate towards worship of nature. But some animals made on seals—like animal with a horn seems imaginary and composite creatures.

(iii) In some seals, a figure shown seated cross¬legged in a yogic posture, sometimes, surrounded by animals. It has been regarded as a depiction of‘Proto- Shiva’, who is one of the major deities of Hinduism.

(iv) Except this, conical stone objects have been classified as ‘Lingas’.
Many reconstructions of Harappan Civilisation regarding religion have been made on the assumption that similarities exist in the earlier and later religious traditions. It is so because archaeologists generally move from known to unknown means and from present to past. This policy could be plausible in case of stone querns but not in case of religious beliefs.

We can take example of seals of Proto-Shiva. There is a mention of a diety, called ‘Rudra’ in the most ancient religious text ‘Rig Veda’ (C. 1500—1500 B.C.E.). Later on, this name was used for ‘Shiva’ in the later Puranic traditions. But on contrary to ‘Shiva’, Rudra is not mentioned as a Pashupati and a Yogi in Rig Veda. In other words, this depiction hardly matches the mention of Rudra in Rig Veda.

Question 9.
Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan society.
Answer:
Cities and settlements of Harappan civilisation were planned. Many craft production centres were there for whom raw material was brought from far off places. Agricultural settlements were also developing. All these functions could have been performed by any ruling class because general masses could not take important collective decisions. Yet, some scholars deny the existence of any ruling class in Harappan civilisation but it hardly seems real. In short, the following functions could have been performed by rulers in the Harappan society.

(i) Urban Planning : Urban planning of Harappan civilisation was of top quality. Cities were developed according to a proper plan. Streets and roads were wide enough and all roads bisected each other at right angles. People lived in houses of baked bricks. Length, breadth and height of bricks were of a standardised ratio. Ruler class lived in citadel of towns and general masses lived in lower towns. There were provisions of windows and doors in houses. Every house had a courtyard, bathroom, kitchen and stairs to reach a second storey or the roof. There were two storey or triple storied houses. People used to make large buildings.

One Great Bath has also been found at Mohenjodaro which could have been used for some kind of a special ritual bath. It was 11.88 metres in length, 7.01 metres in breadth and 2.43 metres in depth. Largest building of this town was the warehouse with the dimension of 45.71m x 15.23 m. Six warehouses have been found at Harappa. Harappan cities had the carefully planned drainage system. Drainage system was properly made which was covered with bricks. These bricks could have been removed at the time of cleaning. Domestic waste water had to flow into the street drains. Every house needed to have at least one wall along the street.

(ii) Different Crafts : Different types of crafts prevailed in Harappan culture which could have been regulated by the state. Tin and nickel were mixed by craftsmen to make copper. Copper was used to make statues, jars and different types of implements like axe, cutter, knife, etc. Evidences have been found about different crafts that prevailed in Harappan towns.

Existence of large buildings indicates towards the existence of house making in that age. They were experts in making seals and statues. Some people used to make jewellery of gold and silver. Harappan craftsmen were also experts in bead making. They were familiar with the art of weight making. Jars made by them were quite shiny.

(iii) Settlement near Sources of Raw Material: Some raw materials were locally available for craftsmen. That is why craft centres were developed by the state, near those areas where raw material was easily available. Raw materials included beads, shells, metals, etc.

(iv) Procuring Raw Material from Distant Places : Rulers used to send expeditions to far off places to procure raw material for craft production. For example, expeditions may have been sent to Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and South India (for gold).

(v) Contacts with Distant Lands : Rulers established contacts with distant lands. Mainly copper was brought through these contacts. Evidences have been found that copper was brought from Oman, on the South east tip of the Arabian Peninsula.

Map Work

Question 1.
On Map 1, use a pencil to circle sites where evidence of agriculture has been recovered. Mark an X against sites where there is evidence of craft production and R against sites where raw materials have been found.
Answer:

Source : R → Site where raw material was and establishment of settlements.
X → Site of craft production.

Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 9 Kings and Chronicles: The Mughal Courts Questions and Answers were solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines covering each topic in chapter to ensure complete preparation. https://mcq-questions.com/ncert-solutions-for-class-12-history-chapter-9/

Kings and Chronicles: The Mughal Courts NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 12

Kings and Chronicles: The Mughal Courts Questions and Answers Class 12 History Chapter 12

Question 1.
Describe the process of manuscript production in the Mughal Court
Or
Describe the variety of tasks C involved in creation of manuscripts of during the reign of the Mughals. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Or
Describe briefly the various tasks involved in creating manuscripts during the Mughal Empire. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Answer:
All the Mughal books were manuscripts. In other words, they were hand-written. The centre where the work of manuscript production was taken was known as the imperial Kitabkhana. This Kitabkhana was like a library and a scriptorium. In other words, it was a place where the emperor kept his collection of manuscripts and produced new manuscripts. A large number of people were involved in the creation of manuscript. They included the following :

• Paper makers who prepared the folios of the manuscript.
• Scribes or calligraphers who copied the texts.
• Guilders who illuminated the pages of the manuscript.
• Painters who illustrated scenes from the text.
• Book binders who gathered the individual folios and set them within ornamental covers.

In the end, all these manuscripts were considered very precious and invaluable. They were a work of beauty and intellectual wealth.

Question 2.
In what ways would the daily routine and special activities associated with the Mughal court have conveyed a sense of the power of the emperor ?
Answer:
In the Mughal court, the king was always the centre of all attractions during the daily routine and special activities. Every activity or festivity exposed the power of the king. The following examples can be cited in this regard :

(i) Discipline in the Court: There were precise rules to determine the status amongst the Mughal elites. The elites having proximity to the king were accorded an important place in the court. There was a perfect discipline in the court. Once the emperor sat on the throne, no one was allowed to move from his seat. Besides no one could leave the court without his permission.

(ii) Forms of Address and Courtesies : All had to follow norms in the court. They had to follow the norms of address, courtesies and speech which were acceptable in court. Even a slightest deviation in etiquettes fetched punishment on the spot.

(iii) The Forms of Salutation : There were many forms of salutation in the court. They indicated the status of the person in the hierarchy. The deeper prostration represented higher status. The complete prostration or sijda meant the highest form of submission. However, under the reign of Shah Jahan, these rituals were replaced with Chahar Taslirn and Zaminbos, i.e., kissing the ground.

(iv) Jharoka Darshan : The Jharoka Darshan was introduced by Akbar. He wanted to-broaden the popular faith in the imperial authority. After performing his devotional prayers, he would go to a small balcony facing the east. The crowd of people comprising of soldiers, merchants, peasants, craft persons and women had the view of the emperor. It was called as the Jharoka Darshan.

Question 3.
Assess the role played by women of the imperial household in the Mughal Empire.
Or
Explain the role played by women of the imperial household in the Mughal Exmpire. (C.B.S.E. 2018)
Answer:
The domestic world of the Mughals was termed as the ‘harem’. The origin of the word ‘harem’ lay in the Persian language where it meant a sacred place. The Mughal household consisted of the following :

• Wives and concubines of the emperor.
• The near and distants relatives of the emperor such as mother, step-mothers, father-mothers, sisters, daughters, daughters-in-law, aunts and children.
• Slaves and female servants.

Two Kinds of Wives : The Mughal rulers had two kinds of wives such a Begums and Aghas. The Begums came from royal and aristocratic families. On the other hand, Aghas were those wives who were not noble by birth. The Begums enjoyed a higher status than the Aghas.

Control Over Financial Resources and Architectural Projects : The Mughal queens and princesses exercised a significant control over financial resources. Jahanara and Roshanara, the two daughters of Shah Jahan, earned an annual income equal to that of mansabdars. Jahanara also got revenues from the port city of Surat, a famous centre of overseas trade. They also designed many architectural projects. For example, Jahanara designed the bazaar of Chandni Chowk in Delhi. She also designed an imposing double storeyed caravan serai with a courtyard and a garden.

Contribution in Writing of History : Gulbadan Begum, the daughter of Babur, wrote a book entitled ‘Humayunama’. It gives a glimpse into the domestic world of the Mughals. Gulbadan Begum also wrote her memories of earlier times under Babur and Humayun. She described various conflicts and tensions that prevailed in the Mughal household.
Role of Elderly Women : They played the role of mediation. They resolved the conflicts that existed between Princes and the Kings.

Question 4.
What were the concerns that shaped Mughal policies and attitudes towards regions outside the sub continent ?
Or
Explain why Qandhar was a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Or
“Historians have provided accounts of diplomatic relationships and conflicts with the neighbouring political powerly of the Mughal Empire.” Elaborate. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (O.D.))
Or
How do you think that Qandhar remained a bone of contention between the Mughals and the Safavids. Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (O.D.))
Or
“Mughals maintained political and diplomatic relations with the states beyond their frontiers.” Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))’
Answer:
Following were the main concerns that shaped Mughal policies and attitudes towards regions outside the subcontinents:
(i) Control over posts of military importance : Political relations between the Mughal emperors and neighbouring countries of Iran and Turan were dependent upon control of the frontier designed by Hindukush mountains. All conquerors who wanted to conquer the Indian sub-continent had to cross Hindukush to have an access to north India. That is why there was a constant policy of Mughals and that was to ward off this potential danger by controlling strategic outposts, i.e., Kabul and Qandhar.

Qandhar was a bone of contention between Safavids (Iran) and the Mughals. This fort city was initially under the control of Humayun. Akbar reconquered it in 1595 C.E. Although Safavids maintained their diplomatic relations with the Mughals but they continued to stake claim over Qandhar. Jahangir, in 1613, sent a diplomatic envoy to the court of Irani ruler Abbas Shah. His objective was to plead the Mughal right over Qandhar but this envoy failed to meet its objective. Safavid army besieged Qandhar in 1622 C.E. The Mughal army was not fully prepared for this. As a result it was defeated and had to surrender fort and city to the Safavids.

(ii) Ottoman Empire : Pilgrimage and trade : The main objective of Mughal’s relations with the Ottoman empire was to maintain a free movement for pilgrims and merchants in the territories under control of the Ottoman empire. This was true especially for the Hijaz i.e., that area of Ottoman Arabia where Mecca and Madina, important pilgrim centres were located.

Mughal emperors generally combined commerce and religion. They used to export valuable things to Aden and Mokha, both ports of Red Sea. They even used to distribute the income from the sale of these goods in charity and keepers of Shrines. But when Aurangzeb came to know about the misappropriation of funds sent to Arabia then he stressed on their distribution in India because he believed that, “it was as much a house of God as Mecca”.

(iii) Jesuit Missionaries in the Mughal Courts: Europe came to know about India from the accounts of Jesuit missionaries, travellers, merchants, etc. Jesuit accounts are the earliest impression of the Mughal court recorded by Europeans. At the end of 15th century, Portuguese merchants established a network of trading centres in coastal cities. Portuguese emperor was also interested in the propagation of Christianity through Jesuit missionaries. Jesuit missions came to India in 16th century and were a part of process of trade and empire building.

Akbar wanted to know something about Christianity and therefore sent an embassy to Goa to invite Jesuit priests. First Jesuit mission reached the Mughal court of Fathepur Sikri in 1580. It remained there for two years. They held discussions with Akbar on Christianity and debated with Ulema’s about its virtues. Two other Jesuit missions were sent to Mughal Court in 1591 and 1595 C.E.

The Jesuit accounts are based on personal experiences. They shed light on mind and character of the emperor. Jesuit people were given place near to Akbar’s throne in public assemblies. They accompanied him on his campaigns and used to teach his children. They were generally his companions during leisure hours. Jesuit accounts corroborate the information given in Persian history about state officials and general masses.

Question 5.
Discuss the major features of Mughal provincial administration. How did the centre control the provinces ?
Or
Explain the chief characteristics of provincial administration of the .Mughal Empire. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (O.D.))
Answer:
The Mughal state had provinces which were called the Subas. These Subas were looked after by Diwan, Bakhshi and Sadar. The head of the provincial government was the Governor (Subedar) who reported directly to the emperor. Each Suba was divided into various sarkars. Then there were districts which were looked after by faujdars.

Then there was pargana, that is, subdistrict. It had three semi-hereditary officers such as the qanungo (keeper of the revenue records), the chaudhari (incharge of revenue collection) and the Qazi. Each department of administration had a large number of clerk’s, accountants, auditors and messengers. Besides there were technically qualified officers who functioned in accordance with fixed rules and procedures.

Question 6.
Discuss, with examples, the distinctive features of the Mughal chronicles.
Answer:
The Mughal chronicles were dynastic histories. They had the following features :
(i) Court Historians : The chronicles were written by the court historians on the request of Mughal rulers. They give an account of the achievements of the Mughal rulers and recorded all major events.

(ii) Chronological Record of Events : The chronicles present a continuous chronological record of important events. They are an indispensable source of information about the Mughal history. They explain the true intentions of the Mughal emperors behind many of their decisions.

(iii) Pictorial Images : The chronicles include many images which describe an event in the visual form. The pictures give a visual expression to many events. They expressed what was otherwise difficult to be conveyed through the written medium.

(iv) Similarity between Court and History of the Emperor: The chronicles written during the reign of Akbar, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb were titled as Akbarnama, Badshahnama and Alamgirnama respectively. They indicate that in the eyes of the authors, the history of the emperor was synonymous to the history of the empire or royal court.

(v) Language : Most of the Mughal court chronicles were written in Persian. Akbarnama, the official Mughal history, was written in Persian. In the same way, the memories of Babur were translated from the Turkish into the Persian and was known as Baburnama.

(vi) Important sources of Mughal History :
The chronicles give the historians a glimpse into the Mughal history. They recorded all the important historical events during the reign of various Mughal rulers. They were a repository of factual information about the institutions of the Mughal Empire.

Question 7.
To what extent do you think the visual material presented in this chapter corresponds with Abul Fazl’s description of the taswir (Source 1) ?
Answer:
Visual material presented in this chapter are coloured paintings. Few buildings like Buland Darwaza are shown. This visual material corresponds quite a lot with Abul Fazl’s description of the taswir.

• This picture is the proper presentation of the things shown in the picture.
• These express great interest of the Mughal rulers for paintings and architecture. They made every possible effort to encourage this art and even established royal art room for this purpose.
• After looking at the given pictures we can say that most proficient artists were available in that age. Their creations could be kept in front of great creations of European artists who achieved popularity in whole of the world.
• Abul Fazl described painting as a magical art and these pictures look like that they had the power to make inanimate objects look as if they possessed life.

Question 8.
What were the distinctive features of the Mughal nobility ? How was their relationship with the emperor shaped ? Why has Mughal nobility been considered as an important pillar of the Mughal state ? Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (O.D.))
Answer:
According to the Mughal chronicles, more particularly the Akbarnama, the power to rule and govern solely rested with the emperor. All the people of the kingdom followed the orders of the king. However there were a lot of officers in the Mughal state. They were the pillars of the kingdom. The historians have collectively referred to them as the nobility.

Functions of Nobility : The nobility consisted of diverse ethnic and religious groups. They did not allow any one or any faction to challenge the authority of the State. They were like a bouquet of flowers held together by loyalty to the emperor. There were many Turani and Iranian nobles in the imperial service of Akbar. They performed the following functions :

• They participated in military campaigns with their armies.
• They served as officers of the empire in the provinces.
• Each military commander recruited, equipped and trained the cavalry of the Mughal army.
• The troopers maintained superior horses.

Recruitment: The nobility rendered the imperial service. In this way, it acquired not only power but also wealth and the highest possible reputation. If a person wished to join this service, he petitioned through a noble. The noble presented a proposal (tajwiz) to the emperor in this regard. If the candidate was found suitable, he was granted a mansab. The Mir Bakshi (paymaster general) stood by the right side of the emperor in an open court. He presented appointment or promotion to all the candidates.

Advisory Body of Important Ministers : In the Mughal Court, two ministers were very important. The first was the Diwan-i-Ala (finance minister). The second was the Sadr-us-Sudur (minister of grants or Madad-i-maash). He was also the incharge of appointing local judges or qazis.

These three ministers never sat together as an advisory body. The Mir Bakshi, the Diwan-i-Ala and Sadr-us-Sudur were independent of each other. However they advised Akbar in all the fiscal and monetary matters and helped him in shaping his administrative institutions.

Reserve Nobles : A few nobles remained stationed at the court. They were called Tainat-i-rakab. They served as a reserve force to be sent to a province or military campaign. They were duty bound to appear before the emperor twice a day daily. Both in the morning and evening, they had to express submission and loyalty to the emperor in the public audience hall. ‘They guarded the emperor and his house-hold round the clock.

Relationship with the Emperor: The nobility was very loyal to the emperor. It was also very obedient and submissive. It served as officers of the empire. The emperor personally reviewed changes in their rank, titles and official postings. Akbar himself designed the mansab system. He also established spiritual relationships with a selected band of his nobility. He treated them as if they were his disciples {murid).

Question 9.
Identify the elements that went into the making of the Mughal ideal of Kingship,
Answer:
There were many elements that led to the formation of the Mughal period as an ideal of Kingship.
(i) King as Symbol of the Divine Power: According to many chronicles, the Mughal rulers derived their power directly from God. They were on the top of the list of those who received the light emanating from God (farr-i-izadi). The transmission of the Divine Light to the king made them the source of spiritual guidance for their subjects.

(ii) Sulh-i-Kul : The source of a Unifying Force: The Mughal Empire comprised of many religious communities such as the Hindus, the Jainas, the Zoroastrians and the Muslims. However the Mughal kings stood above all religious and ethnic groups. They mediated between people belonging to the different religious communities to ensure peace, stability and justice.

According to Abul Fazl, the ideal of Sulh-i-Kul was the corner stone of enlightened rule and absolute peace. Nobody was permitted to undermine the authority of the State. Similarly, all were exhorted not to fight with each other. In fact, the Mughal rulers instructed all their officers to follow the ideal of Sulh-i-Kul in administration.

(iii) Just Sovereignty as Social Contract: Abul Fazl defined sovereignty as a social contract. In other words, the emperor protected the following four essences of his subjects :

• Life (Jan)
• Property (Mai)
• Honour (Namus)
• Faith (Din)

In lieu of this protection, people expressed their obedience and submission to the kings. They also contributed their share of resources. As the sovereigns were just, they honoured the contract with power and Divine Guidance. That is why, many symbols were used by the artists. There was a popular motif of the lion and the lamb. Both lived peacefully in the company of each other. It signified that the Mughal reign was a realm of peace and justice where both the strong and the weak could exist in harmony.